SCHAUM'S

OUTLINE OF

LATIN

GRAMMAR

Alan Fishbone

SCHAUM'S OUTLINE SERIES

McGRAW-HILL

New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon

London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi

San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

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Mattaei Spinelli

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CONTENTS

Preface

xi

Introduction to the Latin Alphabet and

Pronunciation

xiii

Alphabet

xiii

Consonants

xiii

Vowels

xiv

Dipthongs

xiv

Pronunciation of Latin Words

xiv

CHAPTER 1

The Noun

1

The Nominative Case

2

The Genitive Case

2

The Dative Case

3

The Accusative Case

3

The Ablative Case

3

The Vocative Case

4

Declension

4

The First Declension

4

The Second Declension

7

The Third Declension

9

The Fourth Declension

12

The Fifth Declension

13

A Few Irregular Nouns

14

CHAPTER 2

The Adjective

17

First-Second-Declension Adjectives

17

Third-Declension Adjectives

19

Three-Termination Adjectives

19

Two-Termination Adjectives

20

One-Termination Adjectives

21

Adjectives with the Genitive Singular in -õÅus

23

v

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vi

Contents

Comparison of Adjectives

24

The Comparative Degree

24

The Superlative Degree

25

CHAPTER 3

Pronouns and Adjectives

27

Personal Pronouns

27

Re¯exive Pronouns

28

Possessive Adjectives

28

Demonstratives

29

Relatives

31

Interrogatives

31

Inde®nites

32

CHAPTER 4

The Verb

35

Person and Number

35

Voice

35

Mood

36

Indicative

36

Subjunctive

36

Imperative

36

Tense

36

Conjugations

37

Present System

38

Present Indicative Active

39

Present Indicative Passive

39

Imperfect Indicative Active

41

Imperfect Indicative Passive

42

Future Indicative Active

43

Future Indicative Passive

44

Present Subjunctive Active

45

Present Subjunctive Passive

46

Imperfect Subjunctive Active

47

Imperfect Subjunctive Passive

47

Present Imperative Active

48

Present Imperative Passive

48

Future Imperative Active

49

Perfect System

52

Perfect Active System

52

Perfect Passive System

54

Verbal Nouns

59

In®nitives

59

Supine

60

Gerund

60

Participles

61

Present Active Participle

61

Contents

vii

Perfect Passive Participle

62

Future Active Participle

62

Future Passive Participle

62

Periphrastics

62

Deponent Verbs

63

Participles

64

Imperfect Subjunctive

65

Semi-Deponent Verbs

66

Impersonal Verbs

66

Some Irregular Verbs

67

Present Participle

68

Present Indicative

68

Imperfect Indicative

68

Future Indicative

68

Present Subjunctive

69

Present Participle

69

Present Indicative

69

Imperative

69

CHAPTER 5

Adverbs and Prepositions

73

Adverbs

73

Prepositions

74

Common Prepositions with the Accusative Case

75

Common Prepositions with the Ablative Case

76

Prepositions That Take Both Accusative and Ablative Cases

76

CHAPTER 6

Syntax of the Noun

79

Nominative Case

79

Subject

79

Predicate Nominative

79

Genitive Case

80

Possessive Genitive

80

Partitive Genitive

80

Objective Genetive

80

Subjective Genetive

81

Genitive of Characteristic, or Predicate Genitive

81

Genitive of Description

81

Genitive of Inde®nite Value

81

Genitive with Certain Verbs

82

Dative Case

84

Indirect Object

84

Dative of the Possessor

85

Predicate Dative

85

Dative with Compound Verbs

85

Dative with Certain Intransitive Verbs

86

Dative of Agent

86

viii

Contents

Accusative Case

88

Direct Object

88

Subject Accusative of an In®nitive

88

Accusative of Extent of Time or Space

88

Adverbial Accusative

88

Accusative of Place to Which

88

Accusative with Prepositions

89

Accusative of Exclamation

89

Ablative Case

91

Ablative of Place from Which (from)

91

Ablative of Place Where (in)

92

Ablative of Time When or within Which (in)

92

Ablative of Means or Instrument (by)

92

Ablative of Cause (from)

92

Ablative of Personal Agent (by)

92

Ablative of Manner (with)

93

Ablative of Separation (from)

93

Ablative of Comparison (from)

93

Ablative of Degree of Difference (by)

93

Ablative of Description (with)

93

Ablative of Respect

94

Ablative Absolute

94

Ablative with Prepositions

94

Locative Case

97

CHAPTER 7

Syntax of the Adjective

99

Predicate Adjective

99

Substantive Adjective

100

Adverbial Use of the Adjective

100

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

100

CHAPTER 8

Syntax of the Simple Sentence

105

Indicative Mood

106

Imperative Mood

110

Negative Commands

111

Subjunctive Mood: Independent Uses

113

Potential

113

Deliberative

113

Optative

113

Hortatory or Jussive

114

Participles

117

Relative Clauses

119

Contents

ix

CHAPTER 9

Syntax of the Complex Sentence

121

Sequence of Tenses

122

Relative Time

122

Temporal Clauses

123

Causal Clauses

124

Concessive Clauses

125

Purpose Clauses

128

Indirect Commands

129

Result Clauses

129

Fear Clauses

130

Clauses of Prevention

130

Clauses of Doubting

130

Clauses of Proviso

131

Conditional Sentences

135

Simple Conditions

135

Future Conditions

135

Contrary-to-Fact Conditions

136

Relative Clauses with the Subjunctive

140

Relative Clause of Characteristic

140

Relative Clause of Purpose

140

Relative Clause of Result

141

Relative Clause of Cause

141

Participles Revisited

144

Ablative Absolute

145

Indirect Statement

148

Indirect Question

153

Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Statement

158

Relative Clauses in Indirect Statement

159

Conditional Sentences in Indirect Statement

162

` Fore ut'' Clause

165

Impersonal Verbs

167

Verbs of Emotional Distress

167

Verbs and Expressions of Permission and Necessity

168

Verbs of Interest

168

The In®nitive

171

Gerund and Gerundive

172

Supine

173

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

177

INDEX

197

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PREFACE

Schaum's Outline of Latin Grammar is a supplemental reference grammar for students who wish to review or strengthen their grasp of the fundamentals of Latin morphology and syntax. It may be used alongside any course or other material. It follows the basic structure of traditional Latin reference grammars, falling into two parts.

The ®rst presents Latin's extensive morphology in as systematic a manner as possible, with explanations of how the forms of Latin words are generated. Although these forms are many and there is really no particularly easy way around memorizing them, it is hoped that the organization and regularity of their systems will speak for itself. Indeed, that organization and regularity have always been one of the fascinating beauties of Latin, despite the labor of memorization, which can sometimes obscure this from the student's view. To help students through that labor, the book contains numerous exercises, both of recognition and of form generation.

The second part deals with the basic elements of Latin syntax, increasing in complexity from noun cases to the subordination of conditional sentences in indirect statement. They are illustrated with two separate sets of exercises, the ®rst written in a deliberately simpli®ed vocabulary and style that seeks only to exhibit the functioning of the syntax in question. The sentences in these exercises make no other pretentions of any kind. Following them, however, are sentences drawn from classical Latin prose that also exhibit the syntax in question. These sentences are much better examples of Latin in action, but also much more dif®cult, and so I have included extensive vocabulary glossaries to enable students to focus on them without the tedious distraction of slogging through the dictionary. I believe that it is through these real Latin sentences that students will progress from beginning levels of competence to the ability to read classical Latin authors. In the back, students will ®nd answers to all exercise questions and translations of all Latin.

The book is by no means exhaustive. Some things have been left out or passed over in the hope of being concise or at least not overwhelming in detail. Vocabulary, for example, has not been treated at all; likewise, some more abstruse applications of the subjunctive have been omitted. The book is, after all, an `òutline.' Ideally, students will be able to consult it on speci®c matters they encounter elsewhere, read the explanations, and practice understanding them through exercises.

I am deeply indebted to my teachers Floyd Moreland and Stephanie Russell of the Latin=Greek Institute. My thanks go to Rita Fleischer of the same for her help in the realization of this project.

ALAN FISHBONE

xi

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Introduction to the

Latin Alphabet and

Pronunciation

Alphabet

The Latin alphabet is the same as the English but without the letters j and w. For the most part it can be read in the same way, but a few differences must be noted.

CONSONANTS

c

is always pronounced hard, as in cat, never soft like an s.

g

is always pronounced hard, as in god, never soft like a j.

h

is always pronounced, as in hot, never left silent.

i

sometimes acts as a consonant before a vowel and is pronounced as the letter y in English.

v

is always pronounced as the letter w in English.

qu is always pronounced as one consonant, sounding, as in English, like kw.

The other consonant letters are pronounced as in English.

xiii

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xiv

Introduction to the Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation VOWELS

Vowels in Latin are said to be either long or short, depending on the time taken to pronounce them within a given word.

Long vowels will be marked in this text with a horizontal bar above them. This mark is known as a macron.

There are differences of pronunciation between the long and short versions of the same vowels:

aÅ

(as in odd)

a

(as in hot)

eÅ

(as in hate)

e

(as in pet)

õÅ

(as in feet)

i

(as in ®n)

oÅ

(as in bone)

o

(as in ought)

uÅ

(as in moon)

u

(as in put)

DIPTHONGS

Two vowels pronounced together as one sound make a dipthong.

There are six dipthongs in Latin:

ae (as in my)

au (as in cow)

ei

(as in pay)

eu (as read1)

oe (as in boy)

ui (as in win)

As vowel sounds, dipthongs are long.

Pronunciation of Latin Words

The accentuation of a Latin word is determined by its second-to-last or penultimate syllable.2

1 This dipthong appears mostly in Greek words that have been assimilated into Latin, e.g., TheÅseus.

2 This rule is sometimes referred to as the law of the penult, this term being shorthand for the penultimate syllable of a word.

Introduction to the Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation xv

If this syllable is long, then it must be stressed, that is, it receives the accentuation when the word is pronounced. If this syllable is short, the syllable immediately before it is accentuated. (A two-syllable word will always be stressed on the ®rst syllable.)

How is a syllable long? A syllable is long if it has a long vowel or a dipthong, or if the vowel of the syllable is followed by two or more consonants. Otherwise it is short.

õÅnsula

The second-to-last syllable, -sul-, is

short. The vowel u is short, not a

dipthong, and followed by only one

consonant. Therefore the syllable

before it, õÅn-, is accented in

pronunciation.

impleÅvi

The second syllable -leÅ- is long

because it contains a long vowel.

Therefore it is accented in

pronunciation.

Practice reading aloud the following words. Remember to consider whether the penultimate syllable is long or short.

1. mõÅserat

2. animaÅlia

3. inter

4. nostroÅs

5. animoÅs

6. urbibus

7. ambulaÅmus

8. salve

9. iustitia

10. sanguinis

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CHAPTER 1

The Noun

A noun is a word that denotes a person, place, or thingÐfor example, pig.

Every instance of a Latin noun has the three grammatical properties of number, gender, and case.

Number: Like English nouns, Latin nouns are singular or plural. This difference is shown by a change in the word's form.

e.g., mouse

mice

muÅs

muÅreÅs

pig

pigs

porcus

porcõÅ

Gender: English nouns do not show gender. Latin has three gendersÐmasculine, feminine, and neuterÐbut usually any given noun will have only one.

While nouns denoting male or female persons often show the expected gender, these genders do not necessarily correspond to the noun's meaning.

e.g., feÅmina, woman, is feminine

vir, man, is masculine

saxum, rock, is neuter

but

servituÅs, slavery, is feminine

liber, book, is masculine

forum, forum, is neuter

Case is the means by which a noun shows its meaning in a sentence. English sentences create meaning through word order. A noun shows its grammatical function by its position in the sentence or from its combination with other words such as prepositions. For example:

The pig bites the dog.

In this sentence, the pig is the subject and the dog the direct object.

The dog bites the pig.

1

1

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2

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

Here the relationship has been reversed; the dog is the subject and the pig the direct object.

However, although their grammatical functions in the two sentences are different, the nouns pig and dog do not change their form to re¯ect such differences in meaning.

Latin nouns show these different kinds of meaning by changing their form, and the possible forms they can take are called cases.

Such a change in form to express meaning is called in¯ection, and Latin is an in¯ected language.

Latin has six cases. This is to say that there are six basic categories of meaning for nouns in sentences. They show these cases through their endings.

(The explanations that follow are merely a preliminary introduction. The cases will be treated more thoroughly in the sections on noun syntax.) The Nominative Case

A noun takes the nominative case when it is the subject of a sentence: The dog bites the pig.

If this sentence were translated into Latin, the noun dog would take the nominative case.

A noun also takes the nominative case when it is the predicate of a sentence. A predicate is a word linked to the subject in a kind of grammatical equation.

Wine is honey.

The verb acts as an equals sign, saying essentially X  Y, where X is the subject and Y is the predicate.

If this sentence were translated into Latin, the noun wine would take the nominative case because it is the subject (X), and honey would take the nominative because it is the predicate (Y ).

The Genitive Case

This case does much the same work as the English preposition of.

The milk of goats is good.

Translated into Latin, the noun goats would take the genitive case. This case includes the meaning of the preposition of, so this word would not be translated.

The genitive case also shows possession. For example: the man's house

The possessive noun man's in Latin would take the genitive case.

The English form man's itself shows in¯ection through the ending 's. You could say that the form man's is the genitive case of the English noun man.

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

3

The Dative Case

This case does much the same work as the English prepositions to1 and for. It expresses the person(s) or, less usually, the thing(s) affected by the sentence or some part of it:

The milk of goats is good for children.

Translated into Latin, for children would be expressed by the word children in the dative case. The preposition would not be translated since the meaning for is included in the dative case.

The dative case expresses the indirect object of a sentence.

I gave the money to Erskine.

In Latin Erskine would take the dative case.

The Accusative Case

The accusative case expresses the direct object of a sentence.

The pig bites the dog.

Porcus canem mordet.

Since it is the direct object, the noun dog takes the accusative case, canem. Pig takes the nominative case, porcus, since it is the subject.

The dog bites the pig.

Canis porcum mordet.

In this sentence it is the dog which takes the nominative case, canis, since it is the subject, and the pig, as the direct object, which takes the accusative case, porcum.

This grammatical relationship is visibly expressed through case. Therefore it is not the word order that tells you the meaning of the sentence but the endings of the words.

The accusative case is also governed by certain prepositions, particularly those with a sense of (motion) toward or against.

Against the heathens.

Into the sea

In Latin, heathens and sea will take the accusative case. (See Chapter 5.) The Ablative Case

This case does the work of the English prepositions from=with=in=by.

With malice

In agony

Hit by a car

1 To in the sense of ``He seems nice to me'' but not in the sense of ` Go to Paris.'

4

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

All these nouns in Latin will take the ablative case.

This case has many uses, some of which will require prepositions and some of which will not. These will be presented more fully in Chapters 5 and 6.

The Vocative Case

This case is used only for direct address.

Son, put down that hammer.

Son would take the vocative case.

Latin also retains the vestiges of another case, the locative, used, as its name suggests, to express location. It is found only for nouns denoting the names of cities, towns, islands, and for the expressions `àt home'' and `ìn the country.'

As stated before, these are merely introductory descriptions. Case usages will be explained in the sections dealing with noun syntax.

Exercise

1. Identify which case each noun in the following sentence would take in Latin.

Mom, I gave the goat's milk to Douglas with my own hands.

1. Mom

_____________

2. I

_____________

3. goat's

_____________

4. milk

_____________

5. Douglas

_____________

6. hands

_____________

Declension

A declension is a system of endings used to express the different cases described above.

There are ®ve different declensions of Latin nouns, though any given noun belongs to only one.

THE FIRST DECLENSION

Here are some sample nouns of the ®rst declension:

puella, puellae, f.

girl

agricola, agricolae, m.

farmer

meÅnsa, meÅnsae, f.

table

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

5

Given above (in order) are the nominative singular, the genitive singular, the gender, and the meaning. This is the standard format found in dictionaries and textbooks.

The genitive form tells you what declension a noun belongs to and provides the stem for generating all the other case forms. As stated above, a declension is a system of endings for a noun to express case.

All ®rst-declension nouns have the ending -ae in the genitive singular. The endings for the rest of the declension are as follows: Singular

Plural

Nominative

-a

-aÅe

Genitive

-ae

-aÅrum

Dative

-ae

-õÅs

Accusative

-am

-aÅs

Ablative

-aÅ

-õÅs

Vocative

-a

-ae

To decline a noun of the ®rst declension, that is, to generate all of its possible case forms, these endings are added to the noun's stem. The stem is obtained by removing the ending -ae from the noun's genitive singular form.

For the noun agricola, agricolae, m., therefore, the stem is agricol-. It declines as follows:

Singular

Translation

Nominative=vocative2

agricola

a farmer (subject)

Genitive

agricolae

of a farmer, a farmer's

Dative

agricolae

to=for a farmer

Accusative

agricolam

a farmer (direct object)

Ablative

agricolaÅ

from=with=in=by a farmer

Plural

Translation

Nominative=vocative

agricolae

farmers (subject)

Genitive

agricolaÅrum

of farmers, farmers'

Dative

agricolõÅs

to=for farmers

Accusative

agricolaÅs

farmers (direct object)

Ablative

agricolõÅs

from=with=in=by farmers

Nouns of the ®rst declension are predominantly feminine. The exceptions are those nouns that denote masculine agents. There are no neuter nouns in the ®rst declension.

2 With the exception of certain second-declension nouns, the nominative and vocative cases are identical and will be listed together. The locative singular for the ®rst declension ends in -ae; the plural ends in -õÅs: RoÅmae, at Rome; AtheÅnõÅs, at Athens.

6

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

Some more sample ®rst-declension nouns:

aqua, aquae, f.

water

poeÅta, poeÅta, m.

poet

terra, terrae, f.

land

fõÅlia, fõÅliae, f.

daughter

luÅna, luÅnae, f.

moon

nauta, nautae, m.

sailor

luxuria, luxuriae, f.

luxury

feÅmina, feÅminae, f.

woman

amõÅcitia, amõÅcitiae, f.

friendship

pecuÅnia, pecuÅniae, f.

money

avaÅritia, avaÅritiae, f.

avarice

õÅnsula, õÅnsulae, f.

island

Exercises

2. Fully decline the noun aqua, aquae, f.

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

3. Change the following from singular to plural. (If there are two possibilities, give both.)

1. puellam

_____________

2. meÅnsae

_____________

3. poeÅta

_____________

4. terraÅ

_____________

5. aquae

_____________

6. feÅminae

_____________

7. terram

_____________

8. pecuÅnia

_____________

4. Change the following from plural to singular. (If there are two possibilities, give both.)

1. puellae

_____________

2. terraÅs

_____________

3. poeÅtõÅs

_____________

4. aquaÅrum

_____________

5. meÅnsõÅs

_____________

6. terrae

_____________

7. õÅnsulaÅrum _____________

8. luÅnae

_____________

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

7

THE SECOND DECLENSION

All second-declension nouns have the ending -õÅ in the genitive singular.

Here are some sample second-declension nouns:

ventus, ventõÅ, m.

wind

vir, virõÅ, m.

man

bellum, bellõÅ, n.

war

regnum, regnõÅ, n.

kingdom

puer, puerõÅ, m.

boy

amõÅcus, amõÅcõÅ, m.

friend

gladius, gladiõÅ, m.

sword

numerus, numerõÅ, m.

number

gaudium, gaudiõÅ, n.

joy

liber, librõÅ, m.

book

servus, servõÅ, m.

slave

saxum, saxõÅ, n.

rock

As you can see, there is considerable variety of form in the nominative singular of the second declension. It is for this reason that the genitive singular form of a noun serves both to de®ne its declension and to provide the stem for its forms.

The stem for all Latin nouns, regardless of declension, is obtained by removing the ending from the genitive singular form. For example: Noun

Stem

ventus, ventõÅ, m.

vent-

vir, virõÅ, m.

vir-

bellum, bellõÅ, n.

bell-

fõÅlius, fõÅliõÅ, m.

fõÅli-

The second declension declines as follows:

Singular

Nom.

ventus

vir

bellum

fõÅlius

Gen.

ventõÅ

virõÅ

bellõÅ

fõÅliõÅ

Dat.

ventoÅ

võÅroÅ

belloÅ

fõÅlioÅ

Acc.

ventum

virum

bellum

fõÅlium

Abl.

ventoÅ

viroÅ

belloÅ

fõÅlioÅ

Voc.

vente

vir

bellum

fõÅlõÅ

Plural

Nom.=voc.

ventõÅ

virõÅ

bella

fõÅliõÅ

Gen.

ventoÅrum

viroÅrum

belloÅrum

fõÅlioÅrum

Dat.

ventõÅs

võÅrõÅs

bellõÅs

fõÅliõÅs

Acc.

ventoÅs

viroÅs

bella

fõÅlioÅs

Abl.

ventõÅs

virõÅs

bellõÅs

fõÅliõÅs

8

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

Note: Second-declension nouns in -us and -ius are the only Latin nouns whose vocative is different from the nominative.3

For all declensions, the nominative and accusative forms of neuter nouns are identical.

Nouns of the second declension are predominantly masculine and neuter.

Exercises

5. Fully decline the following nouns:

1. saxum, saxõÅ, n.

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

2. puer, puerõÅ, m.

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

3. amõÅcus, amõÅcõÅ, m.

Singular

Plural

Nominative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

Vocative

_____________

_____________

6. Change the following from singular to plural. (If there are two possibilities, give both.)

1. regnum

_____________

2. gladiõÅ

_____________

3. viroÅ

_____________

3 The locative singular ends in -õÅ, the plural in õÅs: TarentõÅ, at Tarentum; DelphõÅs, at Delphi.

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

9

4. liber

_____________

5. numerum _____________

6. gaudium

_____________

7. puer

_____________

8. regnõÅ

_____________

7. Change the following from plural to singular. (If there are two possibilities, give both.)

1. viroÅrum

_____________

2. gladioÅs

_____________

3. bella

_____________

4. ventõÅ

_____________

5. amõÅcõÅs

_____________

6. virõÅ

_____________

7. numeroÅs

_____________

8. regnoÅrum _____________

THE THIRD DECLENSION

Nouns of the third declension have the genitive singular ending -is.

There are two varieties of third-declension noun, i-stem and non±i-stem, with only minor differences between them. The difference amounts to the appearance of an i at certain points of the i-stem declension where it does not appear in the non±

i-stem declension.

Here are some sample third-declension nouns:

mõÅles, mõÅlitis, m.

soldier

sõÅdus, sõÅderis, n.

star

ratioÅ, ratioÅnis, f.

reasoning

voÅx, voÅcis, f.

voice, word

reÅx, reÅgis, m.

king

dolor, doloÅris, m.

pain

nex, necis, f.

murder

¯uÅmen, ¯uÅminis, m.

river

tempus, temporis, n.

time

corpus, corporis, n.

body

voluptaÅs, voluptaÅtis, f.

pleasure

amor, amoÅris, m.

love

eques, equitis, m.

horseman, knight

As you can see, the third declension has nouns of every gender.

There is great variety in the nominative singular, but all genitive singulars end in

-is. The stem is obtained by removing this ending -is from the genitive singular form.

10

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

Noun

Stem

mõÅles, mõÅlitis, m.

mõÅlit-

nex, necis, f.

nec-

ratioÅ, ratioÅnis, f.

ratioÅn-

sõÅdus, sõÅderis, n.

sõÅder-

They decline as follows:

Singular

Nom.=voc.

mõÅles

nex

ratioÅ

sõÅdus

Gen.

mõÅlitis

necis

ratioÅnis

sõÅderis

Dat.

mõÅlitõÅ

necõÅ

ratioÅnõÅ

sõÅderõÅ

Acc.

mõÅlitem

necem

ratioÅnem

sõÅdus

Abl.

mõÅlite

nece

ratioÅne

sidere

Plural

Nom.=voc.

mõÅliteÅs

neceÅs

ratioÅneÅs

sõÅdera

Gen.

mõÅlitum

necum

ratioÅnum

sõÅderum

Dat.

mõÅlitibus

necibus

ratioÅnibus

sõÅderibus

Acc.

mõÅliteÅs

neceÅs

ratioÅneÅs

sõÅdera

Abl.

mõÅlitibus

necibus

ratioÅnibus

sõÅderibus

i-Stem Nouns

Here are some sample i-stem nouns of the third declension: moÅns, montis, -ium, m.

mountain

urbs, urbis, -ium, f.

city

meÅns, mentis, -ium, f.

mind

animal, animaÅlis, -ium, n.

animal

nox, noctis, -õÅum, f.

night

naÅvis, naÅvis, -ium, f.

ship

mare, maris, -ium, n.

sea

i-stem nouns come formatted with an extra element, -ium. This is the genitive plural ending for these nouns, and it is included to indicate that such nouns are i-stem.

They decline as follows:

Singular

Nom.=voc.

moÅns

urbs

animal

Gen.

montis

urbis

animaÅlis

Dat.

montõÅ

urbõÅ

animaÅlõÅ

Acc.

montem

urbem

animal

Abl.

monte

urbe

animaÅlõÅ

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

11

Plural

Nom.=voc.

monteÅs

urbeÅs

animaÅlia

Gen.

montium

urbium

animaÅlium

Dat.

montibus

urbibus

animaÅlibus

Acc.

monteÅs, -õÅs

urbeÅs, -õÅs

animaÅlia

Abl.

montibus

urbibus

animaÅlibus

Note: All i-stem nouns have -ium in the genitive plural.

Masculine and feminine i-stem nouns have an alternate ending ±õÅs in the accusative plural. (There is no difference in meaning.) Neuter i-stem nouns have

±õÅ in the ablative singular and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural. The locative is identical to the ablative.

Exercises

8. Fully decline the following nouns:

1. corpus, corporis, n.

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

2. meÅns, mentis, -ium, f.

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

3. dolor, doloÅris, m.

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

12

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

9. Change the following from singular to plural. (If there are two possibilities, give both.)

1. urbem

_____________

2. reÅgõÅ

_____________

3. voÅcis

_____________

4. animaÅlõÅ

_____________

5. ¯uÅmen

_____________

6. urbis

_____________

7. nox

_____________

8. amoÅre

_____________

10. Change the following from plural to singular. (If there are two possibilities, give both.)

1. sõÅdera

_____________

2. voluptaÅtibus _____________

3. urbeÅs

_____________

4. doloÅrum

_____________

5. montõÅs

_____________

6. mentium

_____________

7. animaÅlia

_____________

8. naÅvium

_____________

9. amoÅribus

_____________

THE FOURTH DECLENSION

Fourth-declension nouns have the ending -uÅs in the genitive singular.

Here are some sample fourth-declension nouns:

spõÅritus, spõÅrituÅs, m.

breath

fruÅctus, fruÅctuÅs, m.

enjoyment

uÅsus, uÅsuÅs, m.

use

cornuÅ, cornuÅs, n.

horn

genuÅ, genuÅs, n.

knee

cursus, cursuÅs, m.

course

manus, manuÅs, f.

hand

¯uctus, ¯uctuÅs, m.

wave

They decline as follows:

Singular

Plural

Nom.=voc.

uÅsus

cornuÅ

uÅsuÅs

cornua

Gen.

uÅsuÅs

cornuÅs

uÅsuum

cornuum

Dat.

uÅsuõÅ

cornuÅ

uÅsibus

cornibus

Acc.

uÅsum

cornuÅ

uÅsuÅs

cornua

Abl.

uÅsuÅ

cornuÅ

uÅsibus

cornibus

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

13

THE FIFTH DECLENSION

Fifth-declension nouns have the ending -eõÅ or -eÅõÅ in the genitive singular, depending on whether the stem ends in a consonant or vowel.

Here are some sample ®fth-declension nouns:

reÅs, reõÅ, f.

thing

dieÅs, dieÅõÅ, m.

day

®deÅs, ®deõÅ, f.

faith

specieÅs, specieÅõÅ, m.

appearance

They decline as follows:

Singular

Plural

Nom.=Voc.

reÅs

dieÅs

reÅs

dieÅs

Gen.

reõÅ

dieÅõÅ

reÅrum

dieÅrum

Dat.

reõÅ

dieÅõÅ

reÅbus

dieÅbus

Acc.

rem

diem

reÅs

dieÅs

Abl.

re

dieÅ

reÅbus

dieÅbus

Exercises

11. Fully decline the following nouns:

1. ®deÅs, ®deõÅ, f.

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

2. manus, manuÅs, f.

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

12. Change the following from singular to plural. (If there are multiple possibilities, give all.)

1. reÅs

_____________

2. dieÅõÅ

_____________

3. fruÅctuÅs

_____________

14

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

4. fruÅctuõÅ

_____________

5. genuÅ

_____________

13. Change the following from plural to singular. (If there are multiple possibilities, give all.)

1. genua

_____________

2. uÅsuum

_____________

3. reÅrum

_____________

4. dieÅbus

_____________

5. reÅs

_____________

A Few Irregular Nouns

The noun võÅs, f. (force, violence4) declines as follows: Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

võÅs

võÅreÅs

Genitive

Ð

võÅrium

Dative

Ð

võÅribus

Accusative

vim

võÅreÅs, -õÅs

Ablative

võÅ

võÅribus

The noun domus, domuÅs or domõÅ, f. (house, home) declines as follows. This noun has both second- and fourth-declension forms.

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

domus

domuÅs

Genitive

domuÅs=domõÅ

domuum=domoÅrum

Dative

domuõÅ=domoÅ

domibus

Accusative

domum

domuÅs=domoÅs

Ablative

domuÅ=domoÅ

domibus

The locative for this noun is domõÅ.

The noun deus, deõÅ, m. (god) declines as follows:

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

deus

dõÅ

Genitive

deõÅ

deoÅrum=deum

Dative

deoÅ

dõÅs

Accusative

deum

deoÅs

Ablative

deoÅ

dõÅs

4 In the plural this noun means ` bodily strength.'

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

15

Exercises

14. Based on the paradigms given, identify the declension for each of the following nouns:

1. reÅgõÅna, reÅgõÅnae, f.

_____________

2. specieÅs, specieÅõÅ, f.

_____________

3. lõÅtus, lõÅtoris, n.

_____________

4. exemplar, exemplaÅris, -ium n.

_____________

5. currus, curruÅs, m.

_____________

6. ager, agrõÅ, m.

_____________

7. saxum, saxõÅ, n.

_____________

8. nauta, nautae, m.

_____________

9. eques, equitis, m.

_____________

10. lõÅbertaÅs, lõÅbertaÅtis, f.

_____________

15. Translate the following forms according to their case and number: 1. lõÅbertaÅtem

_____________

2. equitum

_____________

3. saxõÅs (two poss.)

_____________

4. poeÅtae (three poss.)

_____________

5. agroÅs

_____________

6. exemplar

_____________

7. lõÅtoris

_____________

8. specieÅõÅ

_____________

9. reÅgõÅnõÅs

_____________

10. specieÅs lõÅbertaÅtis

_____________

11. reÅx poeÅtaÅrum

_____________

12. saxa agrõÅ

_____________

16. Change the following from singular to plural. (If there are two possibilities, give both.)

1. currum

_____________

2. exemplaÅrõÅ _____________

3. reÅgõÅnae

_____________

4. equite

_____________

5. lõÅtus

_____________

17. Change the following from plural to singular. (If there are two possibilities, give both.)

1. poeÅtõÅs

_____________

2. agroÅrum

_____________

3. saxa

_____________

4. lõÅbertaÅtum _____________

5. reÅgõÅnaÅs

_____________

16

CHAPTER 1 The Noun

18. On a separate sheet of paper, decline the following nouns: 1. puella, puellae, f.

2. dolor, doloÅris, m.

3. bellum, bellõÅ, n.

4. spõÅritus, spõÅrituÅs, m.

5. reÅs, reõÅ, f.

6. urbs, urbis, -ium, f.

CHAPTER 2

The Adjective

An adjective is a word that modi®es or describes a noun.

For an adjective to modify a noun in Latin, it must agree with it in gender, number, and case. Remember that gender is a permanent characteristic of a noun; only case and number are shown by ending. An adjective by itself has no gender, but re¯ects the gender of the noun that it modi®es. Thus adjectives must be capable of showing each of the three genders.

Like nouns, adjectives belong to declensions from which they take their endings.

Adjectives fall into two groups: ®rst-second-declension adjectives and third-declension adjectives.

First-Second-Declension Adjectives

First-second-declension adjectives take their endings from the ®rst and second declensions of nouns. That is, they take their masculine and neuter endings from the second declension and their feminine endings from the ®rst.

Here are some examples of ®rst-second-declension adjectives: bonus, bona, bonum

good

malus, mala, malum

bad

duÅrus, duÅra, duÅrum

hard

miser, misera, miserum

wretched

pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum

beautiful

dexter, dextra, dextrum

right

sinister, sinistra, sinistrum

left

frõÅgidus, frõÅgida, frõÅgidum

cold

magnus, magna, magnum

large, great

Given above are the nominative singular masculine, feminine, and neuter.

The stem for declining the adjective is obtained by dropping the ending -a from the feminine nominative singular.

17

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18

CHAPTER 2 The Adjective

As stated, these adjectives decline using the endings of the ®rst and second declensions. They use the endings of the ®rst declension for their feminine forms and the second declension for their masculine and neuter forms.

The stem for malus, mala, malum is mal-. It declines as follows: Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Singular

Nominative

malus

mala

malum

Genitive

malõÅ

malae

malõÅ

Dative

maloÅ

malae

maloÅ

Accusative

malum

malam

malum

Ablative

maloÅ

malaÅ

maloÅ

Vocative

male

mala

malum

Plural

Nominative=vocative

malõÅ

malae

mala

Genitive

maloÅrum

malaÅrum

maloÅrum

Dative

malõÅs

malõÅs

malõÅs

Accusative

maloÅs

malaÅs

mala

Ablative

malõÅs

malõÅs

malõÅs

The stem for miser, misera, miserum is miser-. Such adjectives have -er in the masculine nominative and vocative singular. Otherwise, they decline as malus above.

Exercises

1. Choose the correct form of the adjective magnus, magna, magnum to agree with the following nouns. (If there is more than one possibility, give all.)

1. puer

_____________

2. urbis

_____________

3. reÅgõÅnõÅs

_____________

4. agricolaÅrum

_____________

5. amoÅre

_____________

6. cursuÅs

_____________

7. reÅs

_____________

8. ¯uctuum

_____________

9. puella

_____________

10. mentium

_____________

CHAPTER 2 The Adjective

19

2. Decline fully the following phrases:

1. reÅx bonus

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

2. urbs pulchra

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

3. bellum duÅrum

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

Third-Declension Adjectives

Third-declension adjectives take their endings from the third declension.

Depending on the number of forms they show in the nominative singular, they are divided into adjectives of three terminations, two terminations, or one termination.

THREE-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES

aÅcer, aÅcris, aÅcre

sharp

celer, celeris, celere

swift

Given are the nominative singular masculine, feminine, and neuter. The stem is obtained by dropping the ending -is from the feminine nominative singular. They decline as follows:

20

CHAPTER 2 The Adjective

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Singular

Nom.=voc.

aÅcer

aÅcris

aÅcre

Gen.

aÅcris

aÅcris

aÅcris

Dat.

aÅcrõÅ

aÅcrõÅ

aÅcrõÅ

Acc.

aÅcrem

aÅcrem

aÅcre

Abl.

aÅcrõÅ

aÅcrõÅ

aÅcrõÅ

Plural

Nom.=Voc.

aÅcreÅs

aÅcreÅs

aÅcria

Gen.

aÅcrium

aÅcrium

aÅcrium

Dat.

aÅcribus

aÅcribus

aÅcribus

Acc.

aÅcreÅs, -õÅs

aÅcreÅs, -õÅs

aÅcria

Abl.

aÅcribus

aÅcribus

aÅcribus

Note: Third-declension adjectives decline like i-stem nouns, showing

-ium in the genitive plural

-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter

The alternate ending -õÅs in the masculine and feminine accusative plural The ablative singular ending for all genders is -õÅ.

TWO-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES

omnis, omne

every, all

noÅbilis, noÅbile

noble

facilis, facile

easy

grandis, grande

big

Given are the masculine-feminine and neuter singular. This is to say that two-termination adjectives use the same form for the masculine and feminine. The stem is still obtained by removing the ending -is from the feminine (and, in this case, masculine) nominative singular.

They decline as follows:

Masculine=feminine

Neuter

Singular

Nom.=voc.

omnis

omne

Gen.

omnis

omnis

Dat.

omnõÅ

omnõÅ

CHAPTER 2 The Adjective

21

Acc.

omnem

omne

Abl.

omnõÅ

omnõÅ

Plural

Nom.=voc.

omneÅs

omnia

Gen.

omnium

omnium

Dat.

omnibus

omnibus

Acc.

omneÅs, -õÅs

omnia

Abl.

omnibus

omnibus

ONE-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES

simplex, simplicis

simple

audax, audaÅcis

bold

deÅmeÅns, deÅmentis

insane

One-termination adjectives do not distinguish gender at all in the nominative singular. They do, however, distinguish the neuter from the masculine=feminine at other points in the declension.

Given are the nominative and genitive singular for all three genders. The stem is obtained by removing the ending -is from the genitive singular form.

They decline as follows:

Masculine=feminine

Neuter

Singular

Nom.=voc.

audax

audax

Gen.

audaÅcis

audaÅcis

Dat.

audaÅcõÅ

audaÅcõÅ

Acc.

audaÅcem

audax

Abl.

aÅudaÅcõÅ

audaÅcõÅ

Plural

Nom.=voc.

audaÅceÅs

audaÅcia

Gen.

audaÅcium

audaÅcium

Dat.

audaÅcibus

audaÅcibus

Acc.

audaÅceÅs, ±õÅs

audaÅcia

Abl.

audaÅcibus

audaÅcibus

Exercises

3. Choose the correct form of noÅbilis, noÅbile to modify the following nouns. (If there is more than one possibility, give all.) 22

CHAPTER 2 The Adjective

1. reÅgõÅ

_____________

2. urbibus

_____________

3. saxum

_____________

4. puellaÅrum _____________

5. amoÅreÅs

_____________

6. bella

_____________

7. animaÅlis _____________

8. specieÅõÅ

_____________

9. rem

_____________

10. poeÅtaÅs

_____________

4. Fully decline the following phrases:

1. puella deÅmeÅns

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

2. reÅs facilis

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

5. Choose the correct forms of the adjectives malus, -a, -um and grandis,

-e to agree with the following nouns:

malus

grandis

1. avaÅritiae

_____________

_____________

2. fõÅliõÅ

_____________

_____________

3. bella

_____________

_____________

4. animaÅlibus _____________

_____________

5. urbium

_____________

_____________

6. amoÅreÅs

_____________

_____________

7. ventus

_____________

_____________

8. manuÅs

_____________

_____________

9. gaudium

_____________

_____________

10. reÅrum

_____________

_____________

11. naÅvis

_____________

_____________

12. voluptaÅtõÅ

_____________

_____________

13. viroÅrum

_____________

_____________

CHAPTER 2 The Adjective

23

14. montõÅs

_____________

_____________

15. tempus

_____________

_____________

Adjectives with the Genitive

Singular in -õÅus

There is a group of nine adjectives belonging essentially to the ®rst-second declension with the slight irregularity of taking -õÅus in the genitive singular and -õÅ

in the dative singular. They are:

alius, alia, aliud

another

alter, altera, alterum

the other (of two)

uter, utra, utrum

which (of two)

neuter, neutra, neutrum

neither

ullus, ulla, ullum

any

nullus, nulla, nullum

no, none

soÅlus, soÅla, soÅlum

only

toÅtus, toÅta, totum

whole

uÅnus, uÅna, uÅnum

one

They decline as follows:

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

Singular

Nom.=voc.

uÅnus

uÅna

uÅnum

Gen.

uÅnõÅus

uÅnõÅus

uÅnõÅus

Dat.

uÅnõÅ

uÅnõÅ

uÅnõÅ

Acc.

uÅnum

uÅnam

uÅnum

Abl.

uÅnoÅ

uÅnlaÅ

uÅnoÅ

In the plural these adjectives decline as regular ®rst-second-declension adjectives.

Note: Only alius, alia, aliud ends in -ud in the neuter nominative and accusative singular. The genitive singular for this adjective, which would have been the ungainly aliõÅus, is supplied by alterõÅus. All the others decline as uÅnus above.

Exercise

6. Choose the correct form of the adjective toÅtus, ±a, ±um to agree with the following nouns. (If there is more than one possibility, give all.) 1. virõÅ

_____________

2. urbe

_____________

3. moÅns

_____________

24

CHAPTER 2 The Adjective

4. mentis

_____________

5. meÅnsae

_____________

6. reõÅ

_____________

7. belloÅ

_____________

Comparison of Adjectives

Adjectives are said to have three degrees:

The positive, e.g.,

fat

The comparative, e.g.,

fatter

The superlative, e.g.,

fattest

So far we have looked only at formations of the positive degree. To form the comparative and superlative degrees for any adjective, the same stem is used as is used for the positive.

THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE

The comparative degree is formed as a two-termination adjective of the third declension. For example, the comparative of duÅrus, -a, -um (hard) is duÅrior, duÅrius

harder

It declines as follows:

Masculine=feminine

Neuter

Singular

Nom.=voc.

duÅrior

duÅrius

Gen.

duÅrioÅris

duÅrioÅris

Dat.

duÅrioÅrõÅ

duÅrioÅrõÅ

Acc.

duÅrioÅrem

duÅrius

Abl.

duÅrioÅrõÅ, -e

duÅrioÅrõÅ, -eÅ

Plural

Nom.=voc.

duÅrioÅreÅs

duÅrioÅra

Gen.

duÅrioÅrum

duÅrioÅrum

Dat.

duÅrioÅribus

duÅrioÅribus

Acc.

duÅrioÅreÅs

duÅrioÅra

Abl.

duÅrioÅribus

duÅrioÅribus

Note: The comparative degree declines more like a third-declension noun than adjective; all i-stem features are lacking.

The ablative singular ending may be -õÅ or -e.

CHAPTER 2 The Adjective

25

Exercise

7. Decline the phrase poeÅta grandior.

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE

The superlative degree is formed by adding the ending -issimus, -a, -um to the stem.

It declines as a regular ®rst-second-declension adjective: duÅrissimus, duÅrissima, duÅrissimum

hardest

Adjectives ending in -er in the masculine nominative singular form the superlative by adding -rimus directly to this form:

pulcherrimus, -a, -um

most beautiful

miserrimus, -a, -um

most wretched

celerrimus, -a, -um

swiftest

There are six adjectives ending in -lis that form the superlative by adding -limus,

-a, -um to the stem:

gracillimus, -a, -um

most slender

These are:

facilis, facile

easy

dif®cilis, dif®cile

dif®cult

similis, simile

similar

dissimilis, dissimile

dissimilar

humilis, humile

humble

gracilis, gracile

slender

Their comparatives are regular.

Exercises

8. Decline the following phrases.

1. reÅs facillima

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

26

CHAPTER 2 The Adjective

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

2. reÅgõÅna miserrima

Singular

Plural

Nominative=vocative

_____________

_____________

Genitive

_____________

_____________

Dative

_____________

_____________

Accusative

_____________

_____________

Ablative

_____________

_____________

Some adjectives do not form their comparative and superlative degrees in the regular manner.

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

bonus, -a, -um

melior, melius

optimus, -a, -um

malus, -a, -um

peior, peius

pessimus, -a, -um

magnus, -a, -um

maior, maius

maximus, -a, -um

parvus, -a, -um

minor, minus

minimus, -a, -um

multus, -a, -um

pluÅs, pluÅris1

pluÅrimus, -a, -um

9. Translate the following phrases:

1. spõÅritus acer

_______________________________

2. voÅceÅs humillimae

_______________________________

3. reÅx duÅrissimus

_______________________________

4. luxuria maxima

_______________________________

5. ®deÅs minima

_______________________________

6. meÅns melior

_______________________________

7. ventus optimus

_______________________________

8. fõÅlius maior

_______________________________

9. gaudium deÅmentius

_______________________________

10. libertaÅs nobilissima

_______________________________

11. naÅvium pulcherrimaÅrum _______________________________

12. animaÅlis pessimõÅ

_______________________________

1 PluÅs does not decline normally. It is used as a noun.

CHAPTER 3

Pronouns and

Adjectives

A pronoun stands in the place of a noun that is itself understood or named in the context of the pronoun's usage.

For example, normally in such sentences as `Ìt's good'' or ``That's great,' we know what ``that'' and `ìt'' refer to. `Ì,' ` you,' and so on, when used correctly, are similarly clear in their reference.

Personal Pronouns

I

you

we

you (pl.)

Nom.

ego

tuÅ

noÅs

voÅs

Gen.

meõÅ

tuõÅ

nostrum=nostrõÅ1

vestrum=vestrõÅ1

Dat.

mihi

tibi

noÅbõÅs

voÅbõÅs

Acc.

meÅ

teÅ

noÅs

voÅs

Abl.

meÅ

teÅ

noÅbõÅs

voÅbõÅs

There is no separate third-person personal pronoun in Latin. It is supplied by the demonstrative is, ea, id.

Personal pronouns in Latin function just as they do in English. However, they are not required as subjects to make an otherwise subjectless verb form complete in meaning. Their use is often emphatic.

1 Of these two pairs, nostrum and vestrum are used as partitive genitives, nostrõÅ and vestrõÅ as objective genitives.

See Noun Syntax, p. 80.

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CHAPTER 3 Pronouns and Adjectives

Exercise

1. Supply the correct personal pronoun as the subject of the following verb forms.

1. _____________

duÅcoÅ

2. _____________

õÅbimus

3. _____________

pellitis

4. _____________

claÅmaÅs

Re¯exive Pronouns

A re¯exive pronoun is a pronoun that refers to the subject of the sentence or clause in which it occurs. In the ®rst and second persons, it is identical to the personal pronoun. However, there is a third-person re¯exive pronoun in Latin: Nom.

Ð

Gen.

suõÅ

Dat.

sibi

Acc.

seÅ

Abl.

seÅ

This pronoun may be masculine, feminine, neuter, singular, or plural. There is no nominative because in order for the pronoun to be re¯exive, it must refer to the subject. It cannot be the subject itself.

Exercise

2. Supply the correct form of the re¯exive pronoun as the direct object for the following sentences:

1. _____________ amaÅmus.

2. omneÅs homineÅs _____________ amant.

3. _____________ amaÅtis.

4. ReÅgõÅna bona _____________ amat.

Possessive Adjectives

Related to personal and re¯exive pronouns are possessive adjectives: meus, mea, meum

my

tuus, tua, tuum

your

noster, nostra, nostrum

our

vester, vestra, vestrum

your (pl.)

suus, sua, suum

his, her, their

These conjugate as regular ®rst-second-declension adjectives.

CHAPTER 3 Pronouns and Adjectives

29

Personal and re¯exive pronouns do not show gender in themselves, though they will in context when modi®ed by adjectives.

There are other pronouns, however, that do refer speci®cally to nouns. Since Latin nouns show gender, number, and case, so will these pronouns. This makes them much closer to adjectives. In fact, with the exception of personal and re¯exive pronouns, Latin pronouns are adjectivesÐor rather, they are words that can be either adjective or pronoun, depending on their usage.

If they modify nounsÐthat is, appear with them, agreeing in gender, number, and caseÐthen they are adjectives. If they only refer to them, without the nouns appearing with them, they are pronouns.

In some cases, there are slight differences of declension corresponding to these differences of usage.

Demonstratives

The demonstrative pronouns=adjectives point out something: hic, haec, hoc

this

ille, illa, illud

that

is, ea, id

this, that (unemphatic)

õÅdem, eadem, idem

the same

iste, ista, istud

that2

ipse, ipsa, ipsum

self

They decline the same way whether used as adjectives or pronouns: Singular

Plural

Masc.

Fem.

Neuter

Masc.

Fem.

Neuter

Nom. hic

haec

hoc

hõÅ

hae

haec

Gen. huius

huius

huius

hoÅrum

haÅrum

hoÅrum

Dat. huic

huic

huic

hõÅs

hõÅs

hõÅs

Acc. hunc

hanc

hoc

hoÅs

haÅs

haec

Abl. hoÅc

haÅc

hoÅc

hõÅs

hõÅs

hõÅs

Nom. ille

illa

illud

illõÅ

illae

illa

Gen. illõÅus

illõÅus

illõÅus

illoÅrum

illaÅrum

illoÅrum

Dat. illõÅ

illõÅ

illõÅ

illõÅs

illõÅs

illõÅs

Acc. illum

illam

illud

illoÅs

illaÅs

illa

Abl. illoÅ

illaÅ

illoÅ

illõÅs

illõÅs

illõÅs

Nom. is

ea

id

eõÅ, iõÅ

eae

ea

Gen. eÅius

eÅius

eÅius

eoÅrum

eaÅrum

eoÅrum

2 This demonstrative often implies contempt.

30

CHAPTER 3 Pronouns and Adjectives

Dat. eõÅ

eõÅ

eõÅ

eõÅs, iõÅs

eõÅs, iõÅs

eõÅs, iõÅs

Acc. eum

eam

id

eoÅs

eaÅs

ea

Abl. eoÅ

eaÅ

eoÅ

eõÅs, iõÅs

eõÅs, iõÅs

eõÅs, iõÅs

Nom. õÅdem

eadem idem

eõÅdem=

eaedem

eadem

õÅdem

Gen. eÅiusdem eÅiusdem eÅiusdem

eoÅrundem eaÅrundem eoÅrundem

Dat. eõÅdem

eõÅdem

eõÅdem

eõÅsdem=

eõÅsdem=

eõÅsdem=

õÅsdem

õÅsdem

õÅsdem

Acc. eundem eandem idem

eoÅsdem

eaÅsdem

eadem

Abl. eoÅdem eaÅdem eoÅdem

eõÅsdem=

eõÅsdem=

eõÅsdem=

õÅsdem

õÅsdem

õÅsdem

Nom. iste

ista

istud

istõÅ

istae

ista

Gen. istõÅus

istõÅus

istõÅus

istoÅrum

istaÅrum

istoÅrum

Dat. istõÅ

istõÅ

istõÅ

istõÅs

istõÅs

istõÅs

Acc. istum

istam

istud

istoÅs

istaÅs

ista

Abl. istoÅ

istaÅ

istoÅ

istõÅs

istõÅs

istõÅs

Nom. ipse

ipsa

ipsum

ipsõÅ

ipsae

ipsa

Gen. ipsõÅus

ipsõÅus

ipsõÅus

ipsoÅrum

ipsaÅrum

ipsoÅrum

Dat. ipsõÅ

ipsõÅ

ipsõÅ

ipsõÅs

ipsõÅs

ipsõÅs

Acc. ipsum

ipsam

ipsum

ipsoÅs

ipsaÅs

ipsa

Abl. ipsoÅ

ipsaÅ

ipsoÅ

ipsõÅs

ipsõÅs

ipsõÅs

Note: Sometimes ipse is called an intensi®er because it intensi®es the force of the word it modi®es:

ego ipse id võÅdõÅ.

I myself saw it.

ego virum ipsum võÅdõÅ.

I saw the man himself.

Exercises

3. Supply the correct form of the demonstrative adjective in parentheses to agree with the following nouns:

1. _____________ puella (hic, haec, hoc)

2. _____________ montem (ille, illa, illud)

3. _____________ urbium (is, ea, id)

4. _____________ reÅs (ipse, ipsa, ipsum)

5. _____________ fõÅlioÅrum (õÅdem, eadem, idem)

6. _____________ ventõÅs (hic, haec, hoc)

7. _____________ reÅgis (is, ea, id)

8. _____________ fruÅctibus (ille, illa, illud)

CHAPTER 3 Pronouns and Adjectives

31

9. _____________ terraÅs (õÅdem, eadem, idem)

10. _____________ võÅs (ipse, ipsa, ipsum)

4. Translate the following phrases:

1. illa reÅgõÅna

_____________

2. voÅs ipsõÅ

_____________

3. õÅdem ventus

_____________

4. hae puellae

_____________

5. illa saxa

_____________

6. ille võÅvit

_____________

7. ipsa venit

_____________

8. illa ipsa venit

_____________

9. fratrem eÅius võÅdõÅ

_____________

10. ille võÅvet; hic morieÅtur

_____________

Relatives

The man who lives here is evil.

In this sentence, the word who is a relative pronoun. That is to say, it is a pronoun which refers to a noun in the sentence and also begins a clause of its own.

In the example above, who refers to the noun man. The word to which a relative pronoun refers is called an antecedent.

The clause who lives here is called a relative clause. (For uses of the relative clause, see p. 119.) Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns.

In Latin, the relative pronoun declines as follows: Singular

Plural

Masc.

Fem.

Neuter

Masc.

Fem.

Neuter

Nom.

quõÅ

quae

quod

quõÅ

quae

quae

Gen.

cuius

cuius

cuius

quoÅrum

quaÅrum

quoÅrum

Dat.

cui

cui

cui

quibus

quibus

quibus

Acc.

quem

quam

quod

quoÅs

quaÅs

quae

Abl.

quoÅ

quaÅ

quoÅ

quibus

quibus

quibus

Interrogatives

Interrogatives are used to ask questions. There is a slight difference in declension between the pronoun and the adjective. The interrogative adjective is identical to the relative pronoun. The interrogative pronoun joins the masculine and feminine in the singular. It declines as follows:

32

CHAPTER 3 Pronouns and Adjectives

Masc.=Fem.

Neut.

Nom.

quis

quid

Gen.

cuius

cuius

Dat.

cui

cui

Acc.

quem

quid

Abl.

quoÅ

quoÅ

As you can see, it differs from the relative only in the nominative case and in the neuter accusative.

The plural declines in the same way as the relative.

Exercise

5. Supply the correct form of the relative=interrogative adjective to agree with the following nouns:

1. _____________ mentõÅ

2. _____________ bellõÅ

3. _____________ amoÅreÅs

4. _____________ servõÅ

5. _____________ nautae

6. _____________ fõÅliaÅrum

7. _____________ montibus

8. _____________ gladioÅs

9. _____________ animaÅlium

10. _____________ reÅbus

Inde®nites

Inde®nite pronouns=adjectives are not precise in their reference.

aliquõÅ, alõÅqua, aliquod (adj.)

some

aliquis, aliquid (pro.)

someone

These decline in the same way as the interrogative, with the pre®x ali- added.

quõÅdam, quaedam,

a certain (person)

quiddam=quoddam

quõÅque, quaeque, quidque (adj.)

each

quisque, quidque (pro.)

each

quisquam, quidquam (quicquam3)

anyone, anything

(pro.)4

These decline in the same way as the relative pronoun.

3 Alternative spelling.

4 The adjective corresponding to this pronoun is ullus, -a, -um. See p. 23.

CHAPTER 3 Pronouns and Adjectives

33

Exercises

6. Supply the correct form of the inde®nite adjective in parentheses to agree with the following nouns:

1. _____________ homoÅ (aliquõÅ, aliqua, aliquod)

2. _____________ pueroÅs (quõÅque, quaeque, quodque) 3. _____________ reÅgna (quõÅdam, quaedam, quidam)

4. _____________ ¯uÅminis (aliquõÅ, aliqua, aliquod) 5. _____________ nox (quõÅque, quaeque, quodque)

7. Translate the following phrases:

1. aliqua pecuÅnia

________________________________

2. quaeque reÅgõÅna

________________________________

3. quoddam bellum ________________________________

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CHAPTER 4

The Verb

Like nouns, Latin verbs are in¯ected; that is, they take different endings to express different grammatical meanings.

Their in¯ection is called conjugation. Just as nouns belong to different declensions, verbs belong to different conjugations, which are systems of endings for the expression of grammatical information. Through these endings Latin verbs show the properties of person, number, voice, mood, and tense.

Person and Number

Person and number refer to the subject of a verb. There are three persons and two numbers:

Singular

Plural

1st

I

we

2nd

you

you (pl.)

3rd

he, she, it

they

Voice

There are two voices: active and passive. These terms refer to whether the subject performs or suffers the action represented by the verb: Active:

I bite

Passive: I am bitten

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CHAPTER 4 The Verb

Mood

There are three moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. These refer to the quality of information meant by the verb, i.e., how the listener should understand what is conveyed.

INDICATIVE

The indicative is the mood of facts. It is used for the direct assertion of facts or for questions about them:

He eats.

Does he eat?

SUBJUNCTIVE

The subjunctive is used for uncertainties, possibilities, conditions, indirect questions, and so on, both independently and in a broad range of subordinate clauses.

Its translation often involves modal auxiliaries such as may, might, should, and would;

If I were a rich man, I would buy a red car.

I was afraid he might do that.

In Latin the verbs italicized above would take the subjunctive.

IMPERATIVE

The imperative mood expresses commands:

Eat!

Let them eat cake!

Tense

The tense of a verb expresses the time and aspect of the action that it represents.

Time refers to whether the action takes place in the past, present, or future.

Aspect refers to whether the action is represented as completed or not completed.

For example:

``He has eaten'' expresses a completed action. We know from this verb's tense that the eating is ®nished.

``He is eating'' expresses an action that is not completed.

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

37

Latin has six tenses of the indicative mood, corresponding to these three times and two aspects:

Uncompleted aspect:

(Present)

Present

I eat, I am eating

(Past)

Imperfect

I was eating, I used to eat

(Future)

Future

I will eat, I will be eating

Completed aspect:

(Present)

Perfect

I have eaten, I ate

(Past)

Pluperfect

I had eaten

(Future)

Future perfect

I will have eaten

Note: The perfect tense is capable of expressing an action in present or past time, corresponding to the English uses Ì ate'' and Ì have eaten.' In both cases, however, the action is expressed as completed.

There are four tenses of the subjunctive:

Uncompleted

Completed

Present

Perfect

Imperfect

Pluperfect

There are two tenses of the imperative:

Present

Future

Conjugations

Just as nouns belong to different declensions, verbs belong to different conjugations.

The process of conjugating a verb consists of adding in¯ectional endings to stems in different combinations to show person, number, voice, tense, and mood.

Verbs are learned according to their principal parts. These are the forms that provide the necessary stems for conjugation in all the tenses, moods, and voices. For example:

amoÅ, amaÅre, amaÅvõÅ, amaÅtus

love

teneoÅ, teneÅre, tenuõÅ, tentus

have

dõÅcoÅ, dõÅcere, dõÅxõÅ, dictus

say, tell

capioÅ, capere, ceÅpõÅ, captus

take, capture

audioÅ, audõÅre, audõÅvõÅ, audõÅtus

hear

38

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

The ®rst principal part is the ®rst-person-singular present indicative active of its verb:

amoÅ

I love

teneoÅ

I have

The second principal part is the present in®nitive active: amaÅre

to love

teneÅre

to have

The ending for the in®nitive is -re. It is the vowel found before this ending that de®nes to which conjugation a verb belongs. There are four: First-conjugation verbs have

-aÅ- in the second principal part: amaÅre

Second-conjugation verbs have -eÅ- in the second principal part: teneÅre Third-conjugation verbs have -e- in the second principal part: dõÅcere, capere Fourth-conjugation verbs have -õÅ- in the second principal part: audõÅre The third principal part is the ®rst-person-singular perfect indicative active of its verb:

amaÅvõÅ

I loved, I have loved

ceÅpõÅ

I captured, I have captured

The fourth principal part is the perfect passive participle of its verb:1

amaÅtus

(having been) loved

tentus

(having been) held

The Latin verbal system divides conjugations into two systems. The present system comprises

Present, future, and imperfect indicative

Present and imperfect subjunctive

Present and future imperatives

The perfect system comprises

Perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative

Perfect and pluperfect subjunctive

Present System

All tenses of the present system are formed using the present stem. The present stem is obtained by removing the in®nitive ending -re from the second principal part.

amaÅ-

teneÅ-

dõÅci-

capi-

audõÅ-

1 Some grammars give the fourth principal part ending in -tum rather than -tus. However, this will serve the same purpose of providing a stem for the perfect passive system.

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

39

Note: In the third conjugation the -e- turns to -i- with the loss of the ending -re.

To indicate person and number, Latin employs two sets of endings, one for the active voice and one for the passive:

Active personal endings

Passive personal endings

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

1st

-oÅ, -m

-mus

-or, -r

-mur

2nd

-s

-tis

-ris=-re

-minõÅ

3rd

-t

-nt

-tur

-ntur

To conjugate the different tenses of the present system, one simply adds these endings to different versions of the present stem.

PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE

For the present indicative, the endings above are added to the present stem as is. For the active voice, the active endings are used.

Sing.

1st

amoÅ

teneoÅ

dõÅcoÅ

capioÅ

audioÅ

2nd

amaÅs

teneÅs

dõÅcis

capis

audõÅs

3rd

amat

tenet

dicit

capit

audit

Plur.

1st

amaÅmus

teneÅmus

dõÅcimus

capimus

audõÅmus

2nd

amaÅtis

teneÅtis

dõÅcitis

capitis

audõÅtis

3rd

amant

tenent

dicunt

capiunt

audiunt

amant

they love, they are loving

Notes:

The present indicative active uses the ending -oÅ in the ®rst person singular. The ®rst person singular must be learned separately as a principal part because it cannot be derived automatically from the present stem.

The endings -t and -nt shorten preceding long vowels.

When reading a Latin verb form, analyze its components to identify it: The ending -nt indicates that it is third person plural active and the stem ama- that it is present indicative.

Some third-conjugation verbs have -i- in the ®rst principal part and at other points in their conjugation. These are called i-stem verbs.

PRESENT INDICATIVE PASSIVE

For this voice the passive personal endings are used.

Sing.

1st

amor

teneor

dõÅcor

capior

audior

2nd

amaÅris

teneÅris

dõÅceris

caperis

audõÅris

amaÅre

teneÅre

dõÅcere

capere

audõÅre

40

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

3rd

amaÅtur

teneÅtur

dõÅcitur

capitur

audõÅtur

Plur.

1st

amaÅmur

teneÅmur

dõÅcimur

capimur

audõÅmur

2nd

amaÅminõÅ

teneÅminõÅ

dõÅciminõÅ

capiminõÅ

audõÅminõÅ

3rd

amantur

tenentur

dicuntur

capiuntur

audiuntur

Capitur

he, she, it is captured.

Notes:

The ®rst person singular uses the ending -or.

The second person singular has the alternative ending -re. There is no difference in meaning between this and the ending -ris, but this form is identical in appearance to the second principal part.

The endings -r and -ntur shorten preceding long vowels.

Before the endings -ris and -re, short -i becomes -e.2

Exercises

1. Conjugate the following verbs in the present indicative active.

1. duÅcoÅ, duÅcere, duÅxõÅ, ductus to lead

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

2. venioÅ, venõÅre, veÅnõÅ, ventus to come

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

3. iacioÅ, iacere, ieÅcõÅ, iactus to hurl

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

2 This is visible in the second principal part of third-conjugation verbs. When the -re is removed to form the present stem, the -e reverts to -i.

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

41

2. Conjugate the following verbs in the present indicative passive.

1. impleoÅ, impleÅre, impleÅvõÅ, impleÅtus to ®ll

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

2. pelloÅ, pellere, pepulõÅ, pulsus to push

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

3. paroÅ, paraÅre, paraÅvõÅ, paraÅtus to prepare

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

3. Identify the following forms according to person, number, and voice.

Then translate.

1. impleÅmus

________________________________

2. duÅcitur

________________________________

3. iaciunt

________________________________

4. parantur

________________________________

5. pellis

________________________________

6. pelleris

________________________________

7. iaciminõÅ

________________________________

8. paraÅtis

________________________________

9. duÅcunt

________________________________

10. impleÅmur

________________________________

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE

To form this tense, -baÅ- is added to the present stem, followed by the active personal endings:

Sing. 1st amaÅbam

teneÅbam

dõÅceÅbam

capieÅbam

audieÅbam

2nd amaÅbaÅs

teneÅbaÅs

dõÅceÅbaÅs

capieÅbaÅs

audieÅbaÅs

3rd amaÅbat

teneÅbat

diceÅbat

capieÅbat

audieÅbat

42

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

Plur. 1st amaÅbaÅmus teneÅbaÅmus dõÅceÅbaÅmus capieÅbaÅmus audieÅbaÅmus 2nd amaÅbaÅtis

teneÅbaÅtis

dõÅceÅbaÅtis

capieÅbaÅtis

audieÅbaÅtis

3rd amaÅbant

teneÅbant

diceÅbant

capieÅbant

audieÅbant

diceÅbaÅs

you were saying, you used to say

Notes:

The ®rst person singular uses the ending -m, which shortens preceding long vowels.

Third-conjugation verbs take long -eÅ- before the -baÅ-.

i-stem third- and all fourth-conjugation verbs show -ieÅ- before -baÅ.

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE PASSIVE

To form this tense, -baÅ- is added to the present stem, followed by the passive personal endings:

Sing. 1st amaÅbar

teneÅbar

dõÅceÅbar

capieÅbar

audieÅbar

2nd amaÅbaÅris

teneÅbaÅris

dõÅceÅbaÅris

capieÅbaÅris

audõÅbaÅris

amaÅbaÅre

teneÅbaÅre

diceÅbaÅre

capieÅbaÅre

audõÅeÅbaÅre

3rd amaÅbaÅtur teneÅbaÅtur dõÅceÅbaÅtur capieÅbaÅtur audieÅbaÅtur Plur. 1st amaÅbaÅmur teneÅbaÅmur dõÅceÅbaÅmur capieÅbaÅmur audieÅbaÅmur 2nd amaÅbaÅminõÅ teneÅbaÅminõÅ dõÅceÅbaÅminõÅ capieÅbaÅminõÅ audieÅbaÅminõÅ

3rd amaÅbantur teneÅbantur diceÅbantur capieÅbantur audieÅbantur amaÅbaÅminõÅ

you (pl.) were being loved, you (pl.) used to be loved Note: The ®rst person singular uses the ending -r, which shortens the preceding long vowel.

Exercises

4. Conjugate the following verbs in the imperfect indicative active.

1. impleoÅ, impleÅre, impleÅvõÅ, impleÅtus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

43

2. pelloÅ, pellere, pepulõÅ, pulsus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

3. venioÅ, venõÅre, veÅnõÅ, ventus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

5. Conjugate the following verbs in the imperfect indicative passive.

1. duÅcoÅ, duÅcere, duÅxõÅ, ductus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

2. habeoÅ, habeÅre, habuõÅ, habitus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

6. Identify the following forms according to person, number, and voice.

Then translate.

1. pelleÅbaÅmur

________________________________

2. habeÅbaÅmus

________________________________

3. duÅceÅbam

________________________________

4. pelleÅbaÅminõÅ

________________________________

5. impleÅbantur

________________________________

6. venieÅbant

________________________________

7. habeÅbaÅtur

________________________________

8. impleÅbat

________________________________

FUTURE INDICATIVE ACTIVE

This tense is formed differently for the different conjugations: For the ®rst and second conjugations -bi- is added to the present stem.

For non±i-stem third-conjugation verbs, the vowel of the stem changes to -eÅ.

44

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

For i-stem third- and fourth-conjugation verbs, the vowel of the stem changes to -ieÅ.

Then the active personal endings are added:

Sing.

1st

amaÅboÅ

teneÅboÅ

dõÅcam

capiam

audiam

2nd

amaÅbis

teneÅbis

dõÅceÅs

capieÅs

audõÅeÅs

3rd

amaÅbit

teneÅbit

dõÅcet

capiet

audiet

Plur.

1st

amaÅbimus

teneÅbimus

dõÅceÅmus

capieÅmus

audieÅmus

2nd

amaÅbitis

teneÅbitis

dõÅceÅtis

capieÅtis

audieÅtis

3rd

amaÅbunt

teneÅbunt

dõÅcent

capient

audient

teneÅbunt

they will have

dõÅceÅmus

we will say

Notes:

In the ®rst and second conjugations, the ®rst-person singular uses the ending -oÅ.

The -i- of -bi- is absorbed into the -oÅ.

In the third and fourth conjugations, the ®rst-person singular uses -m. The vowel

-eÅ- changes to -aÅ- (short before ®nal -m).

In third-person plural the -i- of -bi- changes to -u- before -nt.

FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE

The same stem alterations are used with the passive personal endings: Sing. 1st

amaÅbor

teneÅbor

dõÅcar

capiar

audiar

2nd amaÅberis

teneÅberis

dõÅceÅris

capieÅris

audieÅris

amaÅbere

teneÅbere

diceÅre

capieÅre

audieÅre

3rd

amaÅbitur

teneÅbitur

dõÅceÅtur

capieÅtur

audieÅtur

Plur.

1st

amaÅbimur

teneÅbimur

dõÅceÅmur

capieÅmur

audieÅmur

2nd amaÅbiminõÅ

teneÅbiminõÅ

dõÅceÅminõÅ capieÅminõÅ audieÅminõÅ

3rd

amaÅbuntur teneÅbuntur dicentur capientur audientur amaÅbor

I will be loved

capieÅminõÅ

you (pl.) will be captured

Note: The i of -bi- changes to e before -ris and -re, and to u before -ntur.

Exercises

7. Conjugate the following verbs in the future indicative active.

1. paroÅ, paraÅre, paraÅvõÅ, paraÅtus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

45

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

2. duÅcoÅ, duÅcere, duÅxõÅ, ductus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

8. Conjugate the following verbs in the future indicative passive.

1. impleoÅ, impleÅre, impleÅvõÅ, impleÅtus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

2. audioÅ, audõÅre, audõÅvõÅ, audõÅtus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

9. Identify the following forms according to person, number, and voice.

Then translate.

1. paraÅbis

________________________________

2. impleÅboÅ

________________________________

3. duÅceÅmur

________________________________

4. audieÅtur

________________________________

5. pellam

________________________________

6. paraÅbuntur

________________________________

7. habeÅbitis

________________________________

8. pelleÅmus

________________________________

9. impleÅbere

________________________________

10. duÅceÅminõÅ

________________________________

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE

To form the present subjunctive, the present stem for each conjugation must change its vowel.

1st

2nd

3rd

3rd i-stem

4th

ameÅ-

teneaÅ-

dicaÅ-

capiaÅ-

audiaÅ-

Then the personal endings are added.

46

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

Sing.

1st

amem

teneam

dõÅcam

capiam

audiam

2nd

ameÅs

teneaÅs

dõÅcaÅs

capiaÅs

audiaÅs

3rd

amet

teneat

dicat

capiat

audiat

Plur.

1st

ameÅmus

teneaÅmus

dõÅcaÅmus

capiaÅmus

audiaÅmus

2nd

ameÅtis

teneaÅtis

dõÅcaÅtis

capiaÅtis

audiaÅtis

3rd

ament

teneant

dicant

capiant

audiant

Note: The ®rst-person singular uses the ending -m.

In the third and fourth conjugations, ®rst-person singular is identical to the same form of the future indicative.

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE

The same stem alterations are used with the passive personal endings: Sing.

1st

amer

tenear

dõÅcar

capiar

audiar

2nd

ameÅris

teneaÅris

dõÅcaÅris

capiaÅtis

audiaÅtis

ameÅre

teneaÅre

dõÅcaÅre

capiaÅre

audiaÅre

3rd

ameÅtur

teneaÅtur

dõÅcaÅtur

capiaÅtur

audiaÅtur

Plur.

1st

ameÅmur

teneaÅmur

dõÅcaÅmur

capiaÅmur

audiaÅmur

2nd

ameÅminõÅ

teneaÅminõÅ

dõÅcaÅminõÅ

capiaÅminõÅ

audiaÅminõÅ

3rd

amentur

teneantur

dõÅcantur

capiantur

audiantur

The following is perhaps a helpful mnemonic device for remembering the vowel changes for the formation of the present subjunctive: 1st

2nd

3rd

3rd i-stem

4th

hEÅ

wEAÅrs

AÅ

gIAÅnt

tIAÅra

Exercises

10. Conjugate the following verbs in the present subjunctive active: 1. paroÅ, paraÅre, paraÅvõÅ, paraÅtus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

2. facioÅ, facere, feÅcõÅ, factus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

47

11. Conjugate the following verbs in the present subjunctive passive.

1. habeoÅ, habeÅre, habuõÅ, habitus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

2. duÅcoÅ, duÅcere, duÅxõÅ, ductus

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE

This tense is formed using the entire second principal part for its stem. The ®nal -e is lengthened and the active personal endings applied: Sing. 1st

amaÅrem

teneÅrem

dõÅcerem

caperem

audõÅrem

2nd amaÅreÅs

teneÅreÅs

dõÅcereÅs

capereÅs

audõÅreÅs

3rd amaÅret

teneÅret

dõÅceret

caperet

audõÅret

Plur.

1st

amaÅreÅmus teneÅreÅmus dõÅcereÅmus capereÅmus audõÅreÅmus 2nd amaÅreÅtis

teneÅreÅtis

dõÅcereÅtis

capereÅtis

audõÅreÅtis

3rd amaÅrent

teneÅrent

dõÅcerent

caperent

audõÅrent

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE

This tense is formed like the active, with the passive personal endings: Sing. 1st

amaÅrer

teneÅrer

dõÅcerer

caperer

audõÅrer

2nd amaÅreÅris

teneÅreÅris

dõÅcereÅris

capereÅris

audõÅreÅris

amaÅreÅre

teneÅreÅre

dõÅcereÅre

capereÅre

audõÅreÅre

3rd amaÅreÅtur

teneÅreÅtur

dõÅcereÅtur

capereÅtur

audõÅreÅtur

Plur. 1st

amaÅreÅmur teneÅreÅmur dõÅcereÅmur capereÅmur audõÅreÅmur 2nd amaÅreÅminõÅ teneÅreÅminõÅ dõÅcereÅminõÅ capereÅminõÅ audõÅreÅminõÅ

3rd amaÅrentur teneÅrentur dõÅcerentur caperentur audõÅrentur Note: Because the entire in®nitive is used as the stem, there is no real distinction among conjugations in the imperfect subjunctive.

48

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

Exercises

12. Conjugate the verb facioÅ, facere, feÅcõÅ, factus in the imperfect subjunctive active.

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

13. Conjugate the verb duÅcoÅ, duÅcere, duÅxõÅ, ductus in the imperfect subjunctive passive.

Singular

Plural

1st

_____________

_____________

2nd

_____________

_____________

3rd

_____________

_____________

PRESENT IMPERATIVE ACTIVE

The present imperative singular is formed by dropping the -re from the second principal part. The plural takes the ending -te:

Sing.

amaÅ

teneÅ

age

cape

audõÅ

Plur.

amaÅte

teneÅte

agite

capite

audõÅte

cape!

Take

Note: Before the ending -te in the third and fourth conjugations, the stem vowel

-i- returns.

There are four verbs that form the imperative irregularly: Sing.

Plur.

dõÅc

say

dõÅcite

duÅc

lead

duÅcite

fac

do

facite

fer

carry

ferte

PRESENT IMPERATIVE PASSIVE

The passive imperative is identical to the second-person singular and plural of the present indicative:

Plur.

amaÅre

teneÅre

agere

capere

audõÅre

Sing.

amaÅminõÅ

teneÅminõÅ

agiminõÅ

capiminõÅ

audõÅminõÅ

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

49

Note: In the singular, only the -re ending is used (not -ris). The present imperative passive is identical in form to the present in®nitive active. Context will enable you to tell the difference between them.

FUTURE IMPERATIVE ACTIVE

The future imperative has both second and third persons: Sing.

2nd

amaÅtoÅ

teneÅtoÅ

dõÅcitoÅ

capitoÅ

audõÅtoÅ

3rd

amaÅtoÅ

teneÅtoÅ

dõÅcitoÅ

capitoÅ

audõÅtoÅ

Plur.

2nd

amaÅtoÅte

teneÅtoÅte

dõÅcitoÅte

capitoÅte

audõÅtoÅte

3rd

amantoÅ

tenentoÅ

dõÅcuntoÅ

capiuntoÅ

audiuntoÅ

amantoÅ

Let them love!

The future imperative is somewhat rare, appearing mostly in legal or archaizing language.

The future passive imperative is so rare that it will not be covered in this book.

Exercises

If necessary, refer to the following list of verbs for the exercises: ambuloÅ, ambulaÅre, ambulaÅvõÅ, ambulaÅtus

walk

claÅmoÅ, claÅmaÅre, claÅmaÅvõÅ, claÅmaÅtus

shout

habeoÅ, habeÅre, habuõÅ, habitus

have

impleoÅ, impleÅre, impleÅvõÅ, impleÅtus

®ll

iubeoÅ, iubeÅre, iussõÅ, iussus

command

deÅleoÅ, deÅleÅre, deÅleÅvõÅ, deÅleÅtus

destroy

duÅcoÅ, duÅcere, duÅxõÅ, ductus

lead

geroÅ, gerere, gessõÅ, gestus

manage

pelloÅ, pellere, pepulõÅ, pulsus

push

iacioÅ, iacere, ieÅcõÅ, iactus

throw

facioÅ, facere, feÅcõÅ, factus

make

venioÅ, venõÅre, veÅnõÅ, ventus

come

14. Identify the following forms according to person, number, tense, voice and mood. Do not translate. (If there is more than one possibility, give all.)

1. ambulaÅmus

________________________________

2. ambuleÅtis

________________________________

3. ambulaÅbat

________________________________

4. impleaÅtur

________________________________

5. impleÅbunt

________________________________

6. impleÅreÅs

________________________________

50

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

7. pelleÅs

________________________________

8. pellaÅtis

________________________________

9. pellitis

________________________________

10. duÅcam

________________________________

11. duÅceÅris

________________________________

12. venõÅreÅs

________________________________

13. duÅceÅre

________________________________

14. duÅcere

________________________________

15. iaciaÅris

________________________________

16. iacite

________________________________

17. fac

________________________________

18. doÅnaÅbor

________________________________

19. deÅleÅbimur

________________________________

20. deÅleÅbaÅmur

________________________________

21. iubeÅboÅ

________________________________

22. veniaÅmus

________________________________

23. doÅnaÅminõÅ

________________________________

24. pellaÅminõÅ

________________________________

25. dõÅceÅbaÅs

________________________________

26. habeÅbitis

________________________________

27. pellite

________________________________

28. iubeÅtoÅ

________________________________

29. claÅmaÅmus

________________________________

30. duÅceÅbaÅmur

________________________________

31. iacere

________________________________

32. gerereÅre

________________________________

33. impleÅ

________________________________

15. Translate the following forms.

1. dõÅcit

_____________

2. iacieÅs

_____________

3. pellunt

_____________

4. faciam

_____________

5. deÅleÅbantur

_____________

6. dõÅcimus

_____________

7. gerite

_____________

8. pelleÅris

_____________

9. duÅcere

_____________

10. venieÅbaÅtis

_____________

11. ambulat

_____________

12. impleÅbitur

_____________

13. facient

_____________

14. impleÅbaÅminõÅ

_____________

15. capiminõÅ

_____________

16. audõÅ

_____________

17. iubeÅtoÅ

_____________

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

51

18. habeÅs

_____________

19. gereÅtur

_____________

20. ambulaÅmus

_____________

16. Change the following forms from active to passive, retaining person, number, tense, and mood.

1. dõÅcit

_____________

2. duÅcaÅmus

_____________

3. gereÅtis

_____________

4. duÅcite

_____________

5. pelleÅbam

_____________

6. iubeÅret

_____________

7. deÅleÅbis

_____________

8. cape

_____________

9. iacimus

_____________

10. audiam

_____________

17. Change the following forms from passive to active, retaining person, number, tense, and mood.

1. iubeor

_____________

2. gereÅbaÅmur

_____________

3. capiminõÅ

_____________

4. pelleÅtur

_____________

5. deÅleÅreÅre

_____________

6. impleÅberis

_____________

7. capere

_____________

8. dõÅcuntur

_____________

9. habeÅbaÅminõÅ

_____________

10. iacereÅmur

_____________

18. If the form is singular, change to plural; if it is plural, change to singular.

1. deÅlent

_____________

2. capiminõÅ

_____________

3. faciam

_____________

4. gereÅs

_____________

5. venieÅbaÅs

_____________

6. dõÅcar

_____________

7. pellereÅmus

_____________

8. impleÅbit

_____________

9. duÅceÅtis

_____________

10. habeÅberis

_____________

52

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

Perfect System

In the perfect system, verbs of all conjugations behave the same. However, the active and passive voices are formed from different stems. Therefore, these systems will be treated separately.

PERFECT ACTIVE SYSTEM

The perfect active stem is the third principal part minus the ending -õÅ: amaÅv-tenu-

dõÅx-

ceÅp-

audõÅv-

All tenses of the perfect active system are formed from this stem, with no difference among the different conjugations.

Perfect Indicative Active

This tense has its own set of endings. These are added to the perfect active stem: Sing.

1st

-õÅ

ceÅpõÅ

2nd

-istõÅ

ceÅpistõÅ

3rd

-it

ceÅpit

Plur.

1st

-imus

ceÅpimus

2nd

-istis

ceÅpistis

3rd

-eÅrunt

ceÅpeÅrunt

cepistõÅ

you captured, you have captured

Pluperfect Indicative Active

This tense is formed by adding -eraÅ- to the perfect active stem, followed by the active personal endings:

ceÅperam

I had loved

ceÅperaÅs

you had loved

ceÅperat

he, she, it had loved

ceÅperaÅmus

we had loved

ceÅperaÅtis

you (pl.) had loved

ceÅperant

they had loved

Note: The ®rst-person singular uses the ending -m.

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

53

Future Perfect Indicative Active

This tense is formed by adding -eri- to the perfect active stem, followed by the active personal endings:

ceÅperoÅ

I will have loved

ceÅperis

you will have loved

ceÅperit

he, she, it will have loved

ceÅperimus

we will have loved

ceÅperitis

you (pl.) will have loved

ceÅperint

they will have loved

Note: The ®rst-person singular uses the ending -oÅ. (The i of -eri disappears before it.)

Perfect Subjunctive Active

This tense is formed by adding -eri- to the perfect active stem, followed by the active personal endings:

ceÅperim

ceÅperis

ceÅperit

Subjunctives should not be translated in

ceÅperimus

isolation.

ceÅperitis

ceÅperint

Note: The ®rst-person singular uses the ending -m.

Apart from the ®rst-person singular, this tense is identical to the future perfect indicative. Grammatical conditions should enable you to tell them apart.

Pluperfect Subjunctive Active

This tense is formed by adding -isseÅ- to the perfect active stem, followed by the active personal endings:

ceÅpissem

ceÅpisseÅs

ceÅpisset

Subjunctives should not be translated in

ceÅpisseÅmus

isolation.

ceÅpisseÅtis

ceÅpissent

Syncopation

Verbs whose third principal part ends in -võÅ may sometimes be shortened by eliminating -vi or -ve before endings. For example: 54

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

audõÅstõÅ

instead of

audõÅvistõÅ

audieÅrunt

audõÅverunt

audõÅsse

audõÅvisse

amaÅrunt

amaÅveÅrunt

This phenomenon is known as syncopation.3

Exercises

19. Identify the following forms according to person, number, tense, voice, and mood. Do not translate. (If there is more than one possibility, give all.)

1. dõÅxeroÅ

________________________________

2. amaÅvisseÅmus

________________________________

3. deÅleÅverit

________________________________

4. feÅcerim

________________________________

5. habuistõÅ

________________________________

6. duÅxeÅrunt

________________________________

7. duÅxerant

________________________________

8. duÅxerint

________________________________

9. veÅnistis

________________________________

10. tenuisset

________________________________

20. Translate the following forms.

1. impleÅveraÅtis

_____________

2. feÅceroÅ

_____________

3. veÅnistõÅ

_____________

4. amaÅvõÅ

_____________

5. ieÅceritis

_____________

6. ieÅceraÅtis

_____________

7. ieÅcistis

_____________

8. pepuleÅrunt

_____________

9. dõÅxõÅ

_____________

10. dõÅximus

_____________

PERFECT PASSIVE SYSTEM

The stem for the perfect passive system is the fourth principal part. It works alongside different tenses of the verb ``to be,' Ðsum, esse, fuõÅ, futuÅrusÐto generate the tenses of this system. It is the form of sum that will determine tense and mood. (For the conjugation of this verb, see p. 67) Because the fourth principal part is a participle, that is, a verbal adjective, it must agree in gender, number, and case with its subject.

3 The word means a cutting or contraction.

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

55

Perfect Indicative Passive

This tense uses the present indicative of sum with the perfect passive participle: ductus, -a, -um sum

I was led, I have been led

ductus, -a, -um es

you were led, you have been led

ductus, -a, -um est

he, she, it was led=has been led

ductõÅ, -ae, -a sumus

we were led, we have been led

ductõÅ, -ae, -a estis

you (pl.) were led, you (pl.) have been

led

ductõÅ, -ae, -a sunt

they were led, they have been led

Pluperfect Indicative Passive

This tense uses the imperfect indicative of sum with the perfect passive participle: ductus, -a, -um eram

I had been led

ductus, -a, -um eraÅs

you had been led

ductus, -a, -um erat

he, she, it had been led

ductõÅ, -ae, -a eraÅmus

we had been led

ductõÅ, -ae, -a eraÅtis

you (pl.) had been led

ductõÅ, -ae, -a erant

they had been led

Future Perfect Indicative Passive

This tense uses the future indicative of sum with the perfect passive participle: ductus, -a, -um eroÅ

I will have been led

ductus, -a, -um eris

you will have been led

ductus, -a, -um erit

he, she, it will have been led

ductõÅ, -ae, -a erimus

we will have been led

ductõÅ, -ae, -a eritis

you (pl.) will have been led

ductõÅ, -ae, -a erunt

they will have been led

Perfect Subjunctive Passive

This tense uses the present subjunctive of sum with the perfect passive participle: ductus, -a, -um sim

ductus, -a, -um sõÅs

ductus, -a, -um sit

ductõÅ, -ae, -a sõÅmus

Subjunctives should not be translated in

ductõÅ, -ae, -a sõÅtis

isolation.

ductõÅ, -ae, -a sint

Note: In the passive system the future perfect indicative and perfect subjunctive do not resemble each other.

56

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive

This tense uses the imperfect subjunctive of sum with the perfect passive participle: ductus, -a, -um essem

ductus, -a, -um esseÅs

ductus, -a, -um esset

ductõÅ, -ae, -a esseÅmus

Subjunctives should not be translated in

ductõÅ, -ae, -a esseÅtis

isolation.

ductõÅ, -ae, -a essent

Exercises

21. Identify the following forms according to person, number, tense, voice, and mood. Do not translate. (If there is more than one possibility, give all.)

1. impleÅtum est

________________________________

________________________________

2. impleÅta erat

________________________________

________________________________

3. impleÅta sunt

________________________________

________________________________

4. pulsus sum

________________________________

________________________________

5. iussõÅ sumus

________________________________

________________________________

6. audõÅta esseÅs

________________________________

________________________________

7. deÅleÅta erunt

________________________________

________________________________

8. deÅleÅta sint

________________________________

________________________________

9. audõÅtum esset ________________________________

________________________________

10. pulsae erant

________________________________

22. Translate the following forms. Remember to acknowledge the gender of the subject.

1. impleÅtum est

________________________________

2. impleÅta erat

________________________________

3. iussõÅ sumus

________________________________

4. deÅleÅta erunt

________________________________

5. pulsae erant

________________________________

6. iactum erit

________________________________

7. captõÅ erant

________________________________

8. capta est

________________________________

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

57

9. amaÅti erunt

________________________________

10. amaÅtus eram

________________________________

23. Change the following forms from active to passive, retaining person, number, tense, and mood. Do not translate.

1. ceÅperis

_____________

2. ceÅperim

_____________

3. deÅleÅvistis

_____________

4. ieÅceraÅmus

_____________

5. pepulisset

_____________

6. impleÅvit

_____________

7. impleÅverit

_____________

8. impleÅverat

_____________

9. impleÅvisseÅmus _____________

10. duÅxeÅrunt

_____________

24. Change the following forms from passive to active, retaining person, number, tense, and mood. Do not translate.

1. ductõÅ esseÅtis

_____________

2. capta erat

_____________

3. captae sumus _____________

4. captus eroÅ

_____________

5. ductus sit

_____________

6. deÅleÅtum erit

_____________

7. deÅleÅtõÅ sunt

_____________

8. deÅleÅtae erant

_____________

9. deÅleÅta erunt

_____________

10. deÅleÅtus esset

_____________

25. Identify and translate the following forms.

1. amaÅveÅrunt

________________________________

2. ductõÅ erunt

________________________________

3. ambulaÅverit

________________________________

4. iussistõÅ

________________________________

5. iussus est

________________________________

6. deÅleÅtum erat

________________________________

7. deÅleÅveraÅmus

________________________________

8. impleÅvistis

________________________________

9. pepuleraÅtis

________________________________

10. ceÅperitis

________________________________

11. ambulaÅbaÅs

________________________________

12. pellam

________________________________

13. impleÅbitis

________________________________

58

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

14. pellent

________________________________

15. pelleÅris

________________________________

16. pelleÅre

________________________________

17. duÅciminõÅ

________________________________

18. duÅceÅbaÅminõÅ

________________________________

19. duÅcentur

________________________________

20. impleÅmur

________________________________

21. impleÅbaÅtur

________________________________

22. impleÅbunt

________________________________

23. impleÅbuntur

________________________________

24. deÅleÅboÅ

________________________________

25. capieÅbaÅre

________________________________

26. cape

________________________________

27. capere

________________________________

28. iacit

________________________________

29. iacent

________________________________

30. iacieÅtur

________________________________

31. iactae sunt

________________________________

32. ieÅceritis

________________________________

33. iacieÅbaÅtur

________________________________

34. iactae erant

________________________________

26. Identify person, number, tense, and voice for the following subjunctive forms. Do not translate.

1. ceÅperim

________________________________

2. capiaÅminõÅ

________________________________

3. ceÅpisseÅtis

________________________________

4. captõÅ esseÅtis

________________________________

5. capereÅre

________________________________

6. audõÅtum sit

________________________________

7. audõÅrent

________________________________

8. audiaÅmur

________________________________

9. pepuleritis

________________________________

10. audõÅvisset

________________________________

11. habeÅreÅtur

________________________________

12. teneaÅris

________________________________

13. tentae sint

________________________________

14. teneÅrentur

________________________________

15. gerat

________________________________

16. ambuleÅtis

________________________________

17. amaÅreÅmur

________________________________

18. amaÅvisseÅs

________________________________

19. amaÅtus essem ________________________________

20. amaÅverim

________________________________

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

59

Verbal Nouns

INFINITIVES

In®nitives are so called because they lack the ®nite characteristics of person and number. They do, however, show tense and voice.

Present Active In®nitive

This is the second principal part:

amaÅre

to love

teneÅre

to have

dõÅcere

to say

capere

to capture

audõÅre

to hear

Present Passive In®nitive

For the ®rst, second, and fourth conjugations, the present passive in®nitive is formed from the active in®nitive by changing the ®nal -e to -õÅ: amaÅrõÅ

to be loved

teneÅrõÅ

to be had

audõÅrõÅ

to be heard

For the third conjugation, the entire -ere ending is changed to -õÅ: dõÅcõÅ

to be said

capõÅ

to be captured

Perfect Active In®nitive

The perfect active in®nitive is formed by adding the ending -isse to the perfect active stem:

amaÅvisse

to have loved

ceÅpisse

to have captured

Note: It is actually the perfect in®nitive that is the stem of the pluperfect subjunctive active.

Perfect Passive In®nitive

The perfect passive in®nitive is formed by adding the present in®nitive of sum to the fourth principal part:

60

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

amaÅtus, -a, -um esse

to have been loved

captus, -a, -um esse

to have been captured

Future Active In®nitive

The future active in®nitive is formed by adding the present in®nitive of sum to the future active participle:

amaÅtuÅrus, -a, -um esse

to be about to love

captuÅrus, -a, -um esse

to be about to capture

Future Passive In®nitive

The future passive in®nitive is formed by adding the supine to the passive in®nitive of eoÅ:

amaÅtum õÅrõÅ

captum õÅrõÅ

This form is used very rarely. It has been omitted from the exercises.

Exercise

27. Identify and translate the following forms.

1. habuisse

_______________________________

2. agõÅ

_______________________________

3. aÅctus, -a, -um esse

_______________________________

4. iacere

_______________________________

5. deÅleÅrõÅ

_______________________________

6. deÅleÅtuÅrus, -a, -um esse

_______________________________

7. deÅleÅvisse

_______________________________

SUPINE

The supine is a verbal noun existing only in the accusative and ablative cases. It is formed as a fourth-declension noun from the fourth principal part: Acc.

captum

dictum

factum

Abl.

captuÅ

dictuÅ

factuÅ

GERUND

The gerund supplements the in®nitive for complete declension of the verbal noun. It has no nominative case:

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

61

Gen.

amandõÅ

capiendõÅ

Dat.

amandoÅ

capiendoÅ

Acc.

amandum

capiendum

Abl.

amandoÅ

capiendoÅ

amandõÅ

of loving

Participles

Participles are verbal adjectives. As verbs they show tenseÐpresent, perfect, and futureÐand voiceÐactive and passive. As adjectives they decline and can modify nouns or act as substantives.

PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE

The present active participle is a third-declension adjective of one termination, formed from the present stem:

amaÅns, amantis

loving

teneÅns, tenentis

having

dõÅceÅns, dicentis

telling

capieÅns, capientis

capturing

audieÅns, audientis

hearing

Here is the full declension:

Singular

Plural

Masc.=fem.

Neuter

Masc.=fem.

Neuter

Nom.

dõÅceÅns

dõÅceÅns

dõÅcenteÅs

dõÅcentia

Gen.

dõÅcentis

dõÅcentium

Dat.

dõÅcentõÅ

dõÅcentibus

Acc.

dõÅcentem

dõÅceÅns

dõÅcenteÅs

dõÅcentia

Abl.

dõÅcentõÅ(-e)

dõÅcentibus

Note: The ablative singular ending is -õÅ when the participle functions as an adjective modifying a noun. The ending is -e when the participle acts as a substantive or is the predicate in an ablative absolute. (See p. 94.) There is no present passive participle or perfect active participle in Latin.

62

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE

The perfect passive participle is the fourth principal part; it declines like a ®rst-second-declension adjective.

amaÅtus, -a, -um

(having been) loved

dictus, -a, -um

(having been) said

captus, -a, -um

(having been) captured

FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE

The future active participle is formed by adding the ending -uÅrus, -a, -um to the stem of the fourth principal part. It declines like a ®rst-second-declension adjective.

amaÅtuÅrus, -a, -um

about to love

dictuÅrus, -a, -um

about to say

captuÅrus, -a, -um

about to capture

FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE

The future passive participle is formed by adding the ending -ndus, -a, -um to the present stem. It declines like a ®rst-second-declension adjective. Its meaning contains an idea of obligation or necessity.

amandus, -a, -um

having to be loved

dõÅcendus, -a, -um

having to be said

capiendus, -a, -um

having to be captured

Exercise

28. Translate the following.

1. capieÅns

__________________________

2. mõÅles capieÅns

__________________________

3. mõÅles urbem capieÅns

__________________________

4. mõÅles urbem captuÅrus

__________________________

5. captus

__________________________

6. urbs capta

__________________________

7. urbs aÅ mõÅlite capta

__________________________

8. urbs aÅ mõÅlite capientõÅ capta

__________________________

__________________________

9. urbs a mõÅlite aliquid dictuÅroÅ capta __________________________

__________________________

PERIPHRASTICS

The future participle may be combined with the verb sum to form what are called periphrastics. They may appear in any tense.

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

63

Active Periphrastic

The active periphrastic is so called because it uses the future active participle: captuÅrus sum

I am about to capture

captuÅrus eram

I was about to capture

Passive Periphrastic

The passive periphrastic is so called because it uses the future passive participle: capiendus est

He must be captured

capienda erat

She had to be captured

capiendõÅ erunt

They will have to be captured

Exercise

29. Translate:

1. urbs deÅlenda est

________________________________

2. urbeÅs deÅlendae erant

________________________________

3. urbeÅs deÅlendae erunt

________________________________

4. virõÅ urbem deÅleÅtuÅrõÅ sunt

________________________________

5. virõÅ urbem deÅleÅtuÅrõÅ erant

________________________________

6. virõÅ urbem deÅleÅtuÅrõÅ erunt ________________________________

Deponent Verbs

Deponent verbs are a class of verbs in Latin that, for the most part, use passive forms but have active meanings.4

Their principal parts are passive and three in number, functioning just as the principal parts of ordinary verbs. That is, they provide the stems for the entire conjugation of the verb.

Here are some example deponent verbs:

1st

mõÅror, mõÅrarõÅ, mõÅraÅtus sum

admire

2nd

fateor, fateÅrõÅ, fassus sum

confess

3rd

sequor, sequõÅ, secuÅtus sum

follow

3rd i-stem

patior, patõÅ, passus sum

suffer

4th

partior, partõÅrõÅ, partõÅtus sum

share

The ®rst principal part is the ®rst-person singular, present indicative passive (but active in meaning):

patior

I suffer

4 They are called deponent because they havè deposed'' or put aside their active forms.

64

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

The second principal part is the present in®nitive passive (but active in meaning): fateÅrõÅ

to confess

sequõÅ

to follow

Note: As in the case of nondeponent verbs, the second principal part shows what conjugation a verb belongs to. Likewise the ®rst principal part will show which verbs in the third conjugation are i-stem and which are not. For example, sequor and patior are both third conjugation. The i in patior shows that it is i-stem.

The third principal part is the ®rst-person singular, perfect indicative passive (but active in meaning):

passus sum

I have suffered, I suffered

fassus est

he confessed

secuÅtõÅ eraÅmus

we had followed

Deponents show all the moods and tenses of nondeponent verbs and form them regularly in the passive system. However, they do have some peculiarities.

PARTICIPLES

Though existing in the passive system, deponents do have present and future active participles that are active in both form and meaning.

Present Active

mõÅraÅns, mõÅrantis

admiring

patieÅns, patientis

suffering

partieÅns, partientis

sharing

Future Active

mõÅratuÅrus, -a, -um

about to admire

passuÅrus, -a, -um

about to suffer

secuÅtuÅrus, -a, -um

about to follow

Note: This means that deponents can form future active in®nitives and active periphrastics.

secuÅtuÅrus, -a, -um esse

to be about to follow

secuÅtuÅrus est

he is about to follow

Perfect

Because their passive forms are active in meaning, practically speaking, deponents have a perfect active participle:

mõÅraÅtus, -a, -um

having admired

secuÅtus, -a, -um

having followed

passus, -a, -um

having suffered

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

65

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE

The imperfect subjunctive, you will recall, is formed from the present active in®nitive for both the active and passive.

Deponents have no present active in®nitive, but they form the imperfect subjunctive as if one existed. For example, working backward from mõÅraÅrõÅ, a

®rst-conjugation passive in®nitive, the active would be mõÅraÅre. From sequõÅ, a third-conjugation passive in®nitive, it would be sequere. Though these forms do not actually exist independently, they act as stems for the formation of the imperfect subjunctive.

mõÅraÅrer

sequerer

mõÅraÅreÅris (-re)

sequereÅris (-re)

mõÅraÅreÅtur

sequereÅtur

mõÅraÅreÅmur

sequereÅmur

mõÅraÅreÅminõÅ

sequereÅminõÅ

mõÅraÅrentur

sequerentur

Exercises

If necessary, refer to the following list of deponents for the exercises: coÅnor, coÅnaÅrõÅ, coÅnaÅtus sum

try, attempt

laÅbor, laÅbõÅ, lapsus sum

slip, fall

vereor, vereÅrõÅ, veritus sum

fear

loquor, loquõÅ, locuÅtus sum

speak

uÅtor, uÅtõÅ, uÅsus sum

use

morior, morõÅ, mortuus sum

die

potior, potõÅrõÅ, potõÅtus sum

gain possession of

30. Translate the following forms.

1. lapsae erant

_____________

2. loqueÅmur

_____________

3. uÅtere

_____________

4. uÅteÅre

_____________

5. morituÅrus sum _____________

6. vereÅbaÅminõÅ

_____________

7. vereÅbiminõÅ

_____________

8. lapsi eritis

_____________

9. coÅnaÅberis

_____________

10. potiendum est _____________

11. loquuntur

_____________

12. uÅtitur

_____________

66

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

31. Identify the following forms.

1. coÅneÅtur

_____________

2. uÅtereÅminõÅ

_____________

3. lapsõÅ sint

_____________

4. loquaÅmur

_____________

5. moriaÅris

_____________

6. verita essem

_____________

7. uÅtaÅmur

_____________

8. uÅteÅmur

_____________

9. uÅtimur

_____________

10. uÅtiminõÅ

_____________

Semi-Deponent Verbs

A few verbs are deponent only in the perfect system. This is indicated by their principal parts, which are active for the present system but passive for the perfect: audeoÅ, audeÅre, ausus sum

dare

soleoÅ, soleÅre, solitus sum

be accustomed to

gaudeoÅ, gaudeÅre, gavõÅsus sum

be happy

fõÅdoÅ, fõÅdere, fõÅsus sum

trust

This means that in the present they use normal active forms and in the perfect they use passive forms, both with active meanings:

loquõÅ audeoÅ

I dare to speak

loquõÅ ausus sum

I dared to speak

Impersonal Verbs

There are some verbs in Latin that occur only in the third-person singular and the in®nitive, without subjects. For this reason they are called impersonal; that is, they do not take personal subjects. Their principal parts re¯ect this, being third-person and in®nitive forms:

piget, pigeÅre, piguit

to disgust

pudet, pudeÅre, puduit

to cause shame

paenitet, paeniteÅre, paenituit

to cause repentance

taedet, taedeÅre, taeduit

to weary

licet, liceÅre, licuit

to be permitted

oportet, oporteÅre, oportuit

to be proper

interest, interesse

to be of interest

reÅfert, reÅferre

to be of concern

For the uses of these verbs see pp. 167±168.

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

67

Some Irregular Verbs

Following are the most common irregular verbs in Latin.

sum, esse, fuõÅ, futuÅrus

be

Present

Imperfect

Future

Present

indicative

indicative

indicative

subjunctive

Sing.

1st

sum

eram

eroÅ

sim

2nd

es

eraÅs

eris

sõÅs

3rd

est

erat

erit

sit

Plur.

1st

sumus

eraÅmus

erimus

sõÅmus

2nd

estis

eraÅtis

eritis

sõÅtis

3rd

sunt

erant

erunt

sint

Note: The fourth principal part is the future active participle. This verb does not (and could not) have a passive system.

Sum has no present or perfect participles. It is regular in the imperfect subjunctive and the entire perfect system.

The future in®nitive of sum is futuÅrum esse. However, in addition to this form there is the alternate fore. This form is also often used as the stem for the imperfect subjunctive, particularly for the third-person singular form foret.

possum, posse, potuõÅ, . . .

be able

Present

Imperfect

Future

Present

indicative

indicative

indicative

subjunctive

Sing.

1st

possum

poteram

poteroÅ

possim

2nd

potes

poteraÅs

poteris

possõÅs

3rd

potest

poterat

poterit

possit

Plur.

1st

possumus

poteraÅmus

poterimus

possõÅmus

2nd

potestis

poteraÅtis

poteritis

possõÅtis

3rd

possunt

poterant

poterunt

possint

This verb is compounded from sum. Before forms of sum beginning with the letter s, it pre®xes pos-. Before forms beginning with the letter e, it pre®xes pot-.

It forms the perfect regularly from its own stem potu-.

eoÅ, õÅre, iõÅ=õÅvõÅ, itus

to go

Present

Imperfect

Future

Present

indicative

indicative

indicative

subjunctive

Sing.

1st

eoÅ

õÅbam

õÅboÅ

eam

2nd

õÅs

õÅbaÅs

õÅbis

eaÅs

3rd

it

õÅbat

õÅbit

eat

68

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

Plur.

1st

õÅmus

õÅbaÅmus

õÅbimus

eaÅmus

2nd

õÅtis

õÅbaÅtis

õÅbitis

eaÅtis

3rd

eunt

õÅbant

õÅbunt

eant

PRESENT PARTICIPLE

ieÅns, euntis

The rest of its conjugation is regular.

voloÅ, velle, voluõÅ

wish, be willing

noÅloÅ, noÅlle, noÅluõÅ

be unwilling

maÅloÅ, maÅlle, maÅluõÅ

want more, prefer

PRESENT INDICATIVE

Sing.

1st

voloÅ

noÅloÅ

maÅloÅ

2nd

võÅs

noÅn võÅs

maÅvõÅs

3rd

vult

noÅn vult

maÅvult

Plur.

1st

volumus

noÅlumus

maÅlumus

2nd

vultis

noÅn vultis

maÅvultis

3rd

volunt

noÅlunt

maÅlunt

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE

Sing.

1st

voleÅbam

noÅleÅbam

maÅleÅbam

2nd

voleÅbaÅs

noÅleÅbaÅs

maÅleÅbaÅs

3rd

voleÅbat

noÅleÅbat

maÅleÅbat

Plur.

1st

voleÅbaÅmus

noÅleÅbaÅmus

maÅleÅbaÅmus

2nd

voleÅbaÅtis

noÅleÅbaÅtis

maÅleÅbaÅtis

3rd

voleÅbant

noÅleÅbant

maÅleÅbant

FUTURE INDICATIVE

Sing.

1st

volam

noÅlam

maÅlam

2nd

voleÅs

noÅleÅs

maÅleÅs

3rd

volet

noÅlet

maÅlet

Plur.

1st

2nd

etc. (as regular third conjugation)

3rd

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

69

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE

Sing.

1st

velim

noÅlim

maÅlim

2nd

velõÅs

noÅlõÅs

maÅlõÅs

3rd

velit

noÅlit

maÅlit

Plur.

1st

velõÅmus

noÅlõÅmus

maÅlõÅmus

2nd

velõÅtis

noÅlõÅtis

maÅlõÅtis

3rd

velint

noÅlint

maÅlint

PRESENT PARTICIPLE

voleÅns, volentis

noÅleÅns, noÅlentis

maÅloÅ has no present participle

These verbs are regular in the imperfect subjunctive and the perfect system.

feroÅ, ferre, tulõÅ, latus

bear, carry

PRESENT INDICATIVE

Active

Passive

Sing.

1st

feroÅ

feror

2nd

fers

ferris, ferre

3rd

fert

fertur

Plur.

1st

ferimus

ferimur

2nd

fertis

feriminõÅ

3rd

ferunt

feruntur

IMPERATIVE

Sing.

fer

Pl.

ferte

Otherwise, feroÅ acts as a regular third conjugation verb.

fõÅoÅ, ®erõÅ, factus sum

be done, be made, happen

This verb is used as the passive for the present system of the verb.

facioÅ, facere, feÅcõÅ, factus

70

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

It has active forms with passive meanings and conjugates as a regular i-stem third-conjugation verb. Note that it has a long -õÅ- in the stem: Present

Imperfect

Future

Present

indicative

indicative

indicative

subjunctive

Sing.

1st

fõÅoÅ

fõÅeÅbam

fõÅam

fõÅam

2nd

fõÅs

fõÅeÅbaÅs

fõÅeÅs

fõÅaÅs

3rd

®t

fõÅeÅbat

fõÅet

fõÅat

Plur.

1st

fõÅmus

fõÅeÅbaÅmus

fõÅeÅmus

fõÅaÅmus

2nd

fõÅtis

fõÅeÅbaÅtis

fõÅeÅtis

fõÅaÅtis

3rd

fõÅunt

fõÅeÅbant

fõÅent

fõÅant

oÅdõÅ, oÅdisse

hate

As the principal parts indicate, this verb exists only in the perfect tense. However in the perfect it has present meaning.

oÅdistõÅ

you hate

Its pluperfect tense acts as a simple past and its future perfect as a simple future: oÅderam

I hated

oÅderit

he will hate

Because this verb lacks a present system, it is called a defective verb.

Exercise

32. Translate the following forms:

1. erimus

_____________

2. noÅlunt

_____________

3. poteritis

_____________

4. possunt

_____________

5. vultis

_____________

6. õÅbit

_____________

7. fers

_____________

8. fõÅmus

_____________

9. ferris

_____________

10. maÅvultis

_____________

11. noÅlumus

_____________

12. õÅbam

_____________

13. poteraÅs

_____________

14. estis

_____________

15. noÅlle

_____________

16. ®erõÅ

_____________

17. feriminõÅ

_____________

18. õÅs

_____________

19. volam

_____________

CHAPTER 4 The Verb

71

20. maÅlunt

_____________

21. noÅluit

_____________

22. ferre

_____________

23. ieÅns

_____________

24. potestis

_____________

25. posse

_____________

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CHAPTER 5

Adverbs and

Prepositions

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They answer questions such as How? Where? When?

He wept bitterly.

The adverb bitterly modi®es the verb wept and tells us how he wept.

I am extremely fat.

The adverb extremely modi®es the adjective fat and tells us how fat I am.

Adverbs are formed from adjectives in one of two different ways. First-second-declension adjectives form adverbs by adding the ending -eÅ to the stem: amõÅceÅ

in a friendly manner

misereÅ

wretchedly

Third-declension adjectives form adverbs by adding the ending -iter to the stem: fortiter

bravely

aÅcriter

sharply

Sometimes the neuter accusative singular of an adjective will serve as an adverb: multum

much

facile

easily

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74

CHAPTER 5 Adverbs and Prepositions

The comparative degree of the adverb is supplied by the neuter accusative singular of the comparative adjective:

aÅcriter

sharply

aÅcrius

more sharply

misereÅ

wretchedly

miserius

more wretchedly

The superlative degree of the adverb is formed as the adverb of a regular ®rst-second-declension adjective, with the ending -eÅ

fortissimeÅ

most bravely

aÅcerrimeÅ

most sharply

Some common adverbs are irregular in all degrees:

bene

well

melius

better

optimeÅ

best

male

badly

peius

worse

pessimeÅ

worst

parum

too little

minus

less

minimeÅ

least

multum

much

pluÅs

more

maximeÅ

most greatly

Exercise

1. Generate the appropriate adverb in the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees for the following adjectives:

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

1. noÅbilis

_____________

_____________

_____________

2. acerbus

_____________

_____________

_____________

3. miser

_____________

_____________

_____________

4. malus

_____________

_____________

_____________

5. bonus

_____________

_____________

_____________

Prepositions

Prepositions are words placed before nouns to create phrases that express adverbial meanings. They answer questions such as Where? Why? How? When?

The pig slept under the table.

The preposition under combines with the noun table to tell us where the pig slept.

Prepositions in Latin take the accusative or the ablative case. Some may take both.

CHAPTER 5 Adverbs and Prepositions

75

COMMON PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

ad

to, toward

They set out toward Asia

ad Asiam pro®ciscuntur

for,1 with a view to

ad pacem

for peace

ante

before (in space or time)

ante oppidum

before the town

ante bellum

before the war

apud

at, near

apud RheÅnum

at the Rhine

at the house of

ceÅnaÅbis bene apud meÅ

you will dine well at my house

circum

around

circum castra

around the camp

contraÅ

against

contraÅ illum dõÅcoÅ

I speak against that man

inter

among

inter mortuoÅs

among the dead

between

inter meam opõÅnioÅnem

ac tuam

between my opinion and yours

ob

on account of, because of

ob metum

because of fear

per

through (in different senses)

multa per aequora

vectus

conveyed through many seas

nihil per õÅram actum est

nothing was done through

anger

post

behind

post montem

behind the mountain

after post mortem

after death

praeter

beyond

praeter õÅnsulaÅs

beyond the islands

praeter spem

beyond expectation

propter

on account of

propter amoÅrem

on account of love

trans

acrosstrans ¯uÅmen

across the river

1 ` For'' in the sense of purpose (i.e., Ì did it `for money'' , not in the sense of à gift `for you.''

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CHAPTER 5 Adverbs and Prepositions

COMMON PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ABLATIVE CASE

aÅ, ab2

away from

aÅ BritanniaÅ

away from Britain

by3 interfectus est aÅ Caesare

he was killed by Caesar

cum

with cum amõÅcõÅs

with friends

Personal, relative, and interrogative pronouns attach to the end of this word:

meÅcum

with me

quibuscum?

with whom?

deÅ

down from

deÅ montibus

down from the mountains

concerning

deÅ animaÅ

concerning the soul

eÅ, ex4

out ofeÅ proÅvinciaÅ ire

to go out of the province

proÅ

for, on behalf of

proÅ amõÅcoÅ meoÅ

on behalf of my friend

sine

without

sine pugnaÅ et sine vulnere

without a ®ght and without

injury

PREPOSITIONS THAT TAKE BOTH ACCUSATIVE AND

ABLATIVE CASES

in

accinto

in Asiam õÅbit

he will go into Asia

against

oÅraÅtioÅ in CatilõÅnam

a speech against Catiline

ablin, on

in AsiaÅ est

he is in Asia

in tantaÅ maestitiaÅ fuisse

to have been in such great sadness

2 Generally, the form ab is used before a word beginning with a vowel, and aÅ before a word beginning with a consonant.

3 In the sense of an action performed ` by' a person. This kind of prepositional phrase usually occurs with verbs in the passive voice and constitutes the ablative of personal agent. See p. 92.

4 Generally the form ex is used before a word beginning with a vowel, and eÅ before a word beginning with a consonant.

CHAPTER 5 Adverbs and Prepositions

77

sub

accunder (implying motion)

sub portam venient

they will come beneath the gate

ablunder (stationary)

quidquid sub terraÅ est

whatever is beneath the earth

Exercise

2. Translate the following phrases:

1. sub luÅnaÅ

_____________

2. post bellum

_____________

3. apud reÅgem

_____________

4. circum urbem

_____________

5. per agroÅs

_____________

6. sine amoÅre

_____________

7. ex aquaÅ

_____________

8. cum avaÅritiaÅ

_____________

9. deÅ montibus

_____________

10. contraÅ mõÅliteÅs

_____________

11. ob pecuÅniam

_____________

12. proÅ reÅgõÅnaÅ

_____________

13. trans mare

_____________

14. ante diem

_____________

15. aÅ poeÅtaÅ

_____________

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CHAPTER 6

Syntax of the Noun

Nominative Case

SUBJECT

The nominative case is the case for the subject of a sentence: PoeÅta vincit.

The poet conquers.

PoeÅta is in the nominative case because it is the subject of this sentence.

Any adjective used to modify this subject must agree with it in gender and number, as well as case.

PoeÅta miser vincit.

The wretched poet conquers.

Miser is masculine nominative singular to agree with poeÅta.

PREDICATE NOMINATIVE

The nominative case is also used in the following manner: PoeÅta est miser.

The poet is wretched.

or

PoeÅta est servus.

The poet is a slave.

In these sentences poeÅta is still the subject. The function of the sentence is to make a statement about this subject, saying essentially ` X  Y,' with the verb acting as an equal sign.

PoeÅta

est

miser

X

5

Y

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CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

This Y is called a predicate, and it agrees in case with the subject. Therefore, in the sentences on page 79, miser and servus are called predicate nominatives.

Genitive Case

The genitive case has many meanings in common with the English preposition of.

For example:

poeÅta amoÅris.

a poet of love.

amor pecuÅniae.

love of money.

A noun in the genitive case usually follows another noun and gives information about it. Above, amoÅris tells us something about what kind of poet she is, pecuÅniae about what kind of love it is. In other words, the genitive case functions like an adjective.

POSSESSIVE GENITIVE

terra reÅgis

the land of the king

This genitive shows possession or ownership.

PARTITIVE GENITIVE

numerus viroÅrum

a number of men

lõÅbra aurõÅ

a pound of gold

The partitive genitive expresses the whole from which a part has come. This genitive is often found with superlatives:

Ille vir est optimus poeÅtarum

That man is the best of the poets

OBJECTIVE GENITIVE

amor pecuÅniae

love of money

nex animaÅlium

slaughter of animals

The objective genitive follows a noun that has a verbal idea in its meaning.

amor

amoÅ, amaÅre

to love

nex

necoÅ, necaÅre

to kill

The use of genitive then corresponds to the direct object of the verbal idea contained in that noun:

to love money

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

81

In the phrase amor pecuÅniae, the genitivèòf money'' represents the direct object of the verbal idea of ``love.' Therefore, it is called an objective genitive.

SUBJECTIVE GENITIVE

amor maÅtris

the love of a mother

adventus naÅvis

the arrival of the ship

Like the objective genitive, the subjective genitive follows a noun with a verbal idea in its meaning, e.g., ``to love,' ``to arrive.' This genitive corresponds to the subject of that verbal idea:

The mother loves.

The ship arrives.

Therefore, it is called a subjective genitive.

GENITIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC, OR PREDICATE GENITIVE

Hominum est pecuÅniam amaÅre

It is characteristic of men to love money

This genitive is almost always used in sentences of this kind, often with an in®nitive as the subject, saying that a certain type of action is ``characteristic of' someone or something. Such a sentence has the form X  Y, i.e., PecuÅniam amaÅre

est

hominum

X

5

Y

The genitive functions as the predicate, and so this type of construction is also called a predicate genitive.

GENITIVE OF DESCRIPTION

vir magnae avaÅritiae

a man of great avarice

This genitive together with an adjective makes a phrase that describes another noun.

GENITIVE OF INDEFINITE VALUE

Illud coÅnsilium magnõÅ aestimoÅ.

I reckon that advice of great (value).

As the name suggests, this genitive is used to make an unspeci®ed judgment of value.

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CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

GENITIVE WITH CERTAIN VERBS

Certain verbs, such as some impersonal verbs (see p. 167) and those denoting remembering or forgetting, take the genitive case.

PecuÅniae taedet poeÅtam.

The poet feels disgust of money.

OblõÅviscaÅminõÅ belloÅrum.

Let us be forgetful of wars.

These should be learned as a matter of vocabulary with such verbs.

Exercises

1. Translate the following. Then identify the case and usage of the italicized word(s).

1. Puer est fõÅlius nautae.

______________________________________________________

2. AvaÅritia est amor pecuÅniae.

______________________________________________________

3. Gaudium amõÅcoÅrum est magnum.

______________________________________________________

4. Gaudium magnum amõÅcoÅrum audioÅ.

______________________________________________________

5. gladius fõÅliae

______________________________________________________

6. spõÅritus deõÅ

______________________________________________________

7. dolor servoÅrum caecoÅrum

______________________________________________________

8. FõÅlioÅrum est patreÅs amaÅre.

______________________________________________________

9. animal cornuum magnoÅrum

______________________________________________________

10. cornua animaÅlium

______________________________________________________

11. Illam reÅgõÅnam nihilõÅ aestimoÅ.

______________________________________________________

2. Translate the following sentences.

1. Ut igitur in seÅminibus est causa arboÅrum et stirpium, sõÅc huius luctuoÅsissimõÅ bellõÅ tuÅ seÅmen fuistõÅ.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

83

2. Ut Helena TroÅianõÅs sic iste huic reõÅ puÅblicae bellõÅ causa, causa pestis atque exitõÅ fuit.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3. Et noÅmen paÅcis dulce est et ipsa reÅs saluÅtaÅris; sed inter paÅcem et servituÅtem pluÅrimum interest. Pax est tranquilla lõÅbertaÅs, servituÅs postreÅmum maloÅrum omnium, noÅn modo belloÅ sed morte etiam repellendum.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. Maximus võÅnõÅ numerus fuit, permagnum optimõÅ pondus argentõÅ. . .

HoÅrum paucõÅs dieÅbus nihil erat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. NoÅn minus est imperaÅtoÅris coÅnsilioÅ superaÅre quam gladioÅ.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. IuÅcundioÅrem faciet lõÅbertaÅtem servituÅtis recordaÅtioÅ.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

7. NoÅn putat tua doÅna esse tantõÅ.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

Vocabulary

ut

just as

igitur (adv.)

therefore

seÅmen, seÅminis, n.

seed

arbor, -oÅris, m.

tree

stirps, stirpis, -ium, f.

plant

sõÅc

so

luctuoÅsus, -a, -um

distressing, grievous

Helena, -ae, f.

Helen

TroÅiaÅnus, -a, -um

Trojan

pestis, pestis, f.

destruction, pestilence

noÅmen, noÅminis, n.

name

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CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

pax, paÅcis, f.

peace

dulcis, -e

sweet

saluÅtaÅris, -e

bene®cial, healthful

servituÅs, -tuÅtis, f.

slavery

tranquillus, -a, -um

peaceful, tranquil

lõÅbertaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

freedom

postreÅmus, -a, -um

most extreme

noÅn modo

not only

sed etiam

but also

mors, mortis, f.

death

repelloÅ, repellere

repel

numerus, -õÅ, m.

number, amount

võÅnum, -õÅ, n.

wine

pondus, ponderis, n.

weight, quantity

argentum, -õÅ, n.

silver

paucõÅ, -ae, -a

few

imperaÅtor, -oÅris, m.

commander

coÅnsilium, -õÅ, n.

advice, planning

gladius, -õÅ, m.

sword

iuÅcundus, -a, -um

pleasing

recordaÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

recollection, memory

lõÅbertaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

liberty

servituÅs, -tuÅtis, f.

slavery

putoÅ, putaÅre

think

tantus, -a, -um

so great

Dative Case

The dative case can often be translated by the English prepositions to and for.

Aqua est bona puerõÅs.

Water is good for children.

Almost always you will ®nd nouns that denote people in the dative case; these are the peoplè`to'' or ``for'' whom the information in the rest of the sentence is important.

INDIRECT OBJECT

The dative is used to express the indirect object of a sentence.

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

85

Librum poeÅtae dedõÅ.

I gave a book to the poet.

PecuÅniam tibi moÅnstraÅboÅ.

I will show the money to you.

DATIVE OF THE POSSESSOR

This dative is used in a complete sentence to say that something belongs ``to someone.'

ReÅgõÅ sunt multa animaÅlia.

To the king there are many animals.

or

The king has many animals.

PREDICATE DATIVE

This is an old and interesting use of the dative that does not much resemble its other uses.

Illa terra erit magno uÅsuõÅ.

Some suggested translations have been:

That land will bèòf great use.'

à source of great use.'

``for the purpose of great use.'

The sentence has the form of an equation in which the dative acts as the predicate: Illa terra

erit

magnoÅ usuõÅ

X

5

Y

Ventus est magnae cuÅrae.

The wind is a great concern.

This usage is often accompanied by another, more ordinary dative of reference to specify for whom the sentence is true:

NautõÅs ventus est magnae cuÅrae.

To the sailors the wind is a (source of)

great concern.

DATIVE WITH COMPOUND VERBS

Many compound verbs, that is, verbs with prepositional pre®xes attached to them, call for a referential dative:

RoÅmaÅnõÅ servituÅtem populõÅs

imposueÅrunt.

The Romans imposed slavery on the

peoples.

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CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

It is as if the pre®x is a preposition pointing to the dative.

MuÅrum urbõÅ circumposuit.

He put a wall around the city.

DATIVE WITH CERTAIN INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Certain intransitive verbs, that is, verbs that do not take direct objects, naturally take the dative case:

PoeÅtõÅs persuaÅdeÅmus abõÅre.

We persuade the poets to go away.

ReÅgõÅ noÅn creÅdoÅ.

I do not trust the king.

This dative should be learned as a matter of vocabulary with the verbs that take it.

DATIVE OF AGENT

This dative is used mostly with the passive periphrastic (see p. 63) Urbs vincenda est mõÅlitibus.

The city must be conquered by the

soldiers.

(Literally, ` For the soldiers it is necessary for the city to be conquered.' ) Exercises

3. Translate the following. Then identify the italicized usages.

1. Mihi noÅn est gladius.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

2. ReÅx pecuÅniam mõÅlitibus doÅnaÅbat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3. NaÅvis poeÅtis deÅlenda erat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. Urbs magnae luxuÅriae nautõÅs deÅlenda erat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. Illa aqua puerõÅs noceÅbit.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

87

6. Undae magnoÅ perõÅculoÅ naÅvibus sunt.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

7. Exercitum montibus postposuit.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. Translate the following sentences.

1. Parant ea quae uÅsuõÅ sunt oppidoÅ.

______________________________________________________

2. Ille RoÅmaÅnae praeerat arcõÅ.

______________________________________________________

3. Quam attulistõÅ ratioÅnem populoÅ RoÅmaÅnoÅ?

______________________________________________________

4. AliõÅs coÅnsilium, aliõÅs animus, aliõÅs occaÅsioÅ deÅfuit; voluntaÅs neÅminõÅ.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. Mortem servituÅtõÅ antepoÅnaÅmus.

______________________________________________________

Vocabulary

paroÅ, paraÅre, paraÅvõÅ, paraÅtus

prepare

uÅsus, -uÅs, m.

use, advantage

praesum

to be in charge of

arx, arcis, f.

citadel

afferoÅ

bring to

ratioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

reason, reckoning

coÅnsilium, -õÅ, n.

advice, planning

occaÅsioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

opportunity

deÅsum

to be lacking to ( dative)

voluntaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

will, intention

neÅmoÅ, neÅminis

nobody

mors, mortis, f.

death

servituÅs, -tuÅtis, f.

slavery

antepoÅnoÅ

place before, prefer

88

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

Accusative Case

DIRECT OBJECT

The accusative is used to express the direct object of a sentence.

MõÅliteÅs urbem deÅlent.

The soldiers destroy the city.

Sometimes a verb that would not normally take a direct object, e.g., eoÅ, to go, can take one naturally connected to its meaning.

iter õÅre

to go a road

viam ceÅdere

to go a road

Such a usage is called an internal or cognate accusative.

SUBJECT ACCUSATIVE OF AN INFINITIVE

In®nitives take subjects in the accusative case, most commonly in what is called indirect statement, that is, speech reported from another source. The grammar of this construction is explained in Chapter 8.

DõÅcoÅ viroÅs in via ambulaÅre.

I say that the men are walking in the

road.

ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT OF TIME OR SPACE

This is an adverbial usage, limiting the time or space occupied by an action.

QuõÅnque annoÅs laboÅraÅveram.

I had worked for ®ve years.

Sex mõÅlia passuum processeÅrunt.

They advanced six miles.

ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE

The neuter singular accusative of an adjective can function as an adverb.

Multum pecuÅniam amaÅtis.

You love money very much.

ACCUSATIVE OF PLACE TO WHICH

The accusative, with or without prepositions, is used to express motion toward or against something.

Ad mare veÅnimus.

We came to the sea.

in mõÅliteÅs

against the soldiers

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

89

Prepositions are not used for the names of cities, towns, or islands, or the nouns domus and ruÅs.

RoÅmam õÅboÅ.

I will go to Rome.

Domum veÅnimus.

We came home.

ACCUSATIVE WITH PREPOSITIONS

Many other ideas are expressed by the accusative with different prepositions (see p. 75).

ACCUSATIVE OF EXCLAMATION

The accusative is used for exclamations:

O rem terribilem!

A terrible thing!

Exercises

5. Translate the following. Then identify the italicized usages.

1. PecuÅnia amõÅcitiam deÅleÅbit.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

2. ToÅtam noctem ambulaÅvõÅ.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3. Viam dif®cilem noÅlumus õÅre.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. RoÅmam feÅminae processeÅrunt.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. DõÅcoÅ pecuÅniam amõÅcitiam deÅleÅre.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. DõÅcit viroÅs claÅmaÅre.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

7. AvaÅritia mentem reÅgis deÅleÅvit.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

90

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

8. MultoÅs annoÅs avaÅritia mentem reÅgis deÅleÅbat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. Translate the following sentences.

1. Habet quidem certeÅ reÅs puÅblica adulescentõÅs noÅbillissimoÅs paraÅtoÅs deÅfensoÅreÅs.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

2. Hanc veÅroÅ taeterrimam beÅluam quis ferre potest aut quoÅ modoÅ? Quid est in AntoÅnioÅ praeter libõÅdinem, cruÅdeÅlitaÅtem, petulantiam, audaÅ-

ciam?

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3. PoÅne ante oculoÅs laetitiam senaÅtuÅs populõÅque RoÅmaÅnõÅ.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. Bellum nefaÅrium contraÅ aÅraÅs et focoÅs, contraÅ võÅtam fortuÅnaÅsque nostraÅs ab homine proÅ¯õÅgaÅtoÅ ac perditoÅ noÅn comparaÅrõÅ sed gerõÅ iam võÅderam.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. At quam multoÅs dieÅs in eaÅ villaÅ turpissimeÅ es perbacchaÅtus!

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. O foeditaÅtem hominis ¯aÅgitioÅsam, o impudentiam, neÅquitiam, libõÅ-

dinem noÅn ferandam!

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

Vocabulary

quidem (adv.)

indeed

certeÅ (adv.)

certainly

adulesceÅns, -ntis

young, youthful

paroÅ, paraÅre

prepare

deÅfensor, -oÅris, m.

defender

veÅroÅ

but

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

91

taeter, -tra, -trum

foul

beÅlua, -ae, f.

beast

quoÅ modoÅ

how?

AntoÅnius, -õÅ, m.

Antonius

libõÅdoÅ, -inis, f.

lust

cruÅdeÅlitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

cruelty

petulantia, -ae, f.

arrogance

audaÅcia, -ae, f.

outrageous boldness, audacity

laetitia, -ae, f.

happiness

senaÅtus, -us, m.

senate

nefaÅrius, -a, -um

evil, unspeakably criminal

aÅra, -ae, f.

altar

focus, -õÅ, m.

hearth, ®replace

proÅ¯õÅgaÅtus, -a, -um

pro¯igate

perditus, -a, -um

ruined, desperate

comparoÅ, comparaÅre

prepare, get ready

at

but

villa, -ae, f.

villa

turpis, -e

foul

perbacchor (1st conjug.)

revel, have wild parties

foeditaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

repulsiveness, baseness

¯aÅgitioÅsus, -a, -um

disgraceful

impudentia, -ae, f.

shamelessness

neÅquitia, -ae, f.

worthlessness

Ablative Case

The ablative does many of the jobs of the English prepositions from, with, in, and by. They are many.

ABLATIVE OF PLACE FROM WHICH (FROM)

Prepositions denoting ideas of separation take the ablative case: ex urbe

out of the city

deÅ montibus

down from the mountains

ab aquaÅ

away from the water

Names of cities, towns, and islands and the nouns domus and ruÅs do not take prepositions to express this meaning.

92

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

RoÅmaÅ veÅneÅrunt.

They came from Rome.

RuÅre veÅneÅrunt.

They came from the country.

ABLATIVE OF PLACE WHERE (IN)

This ablative takes the preposition in.

in AsiaÅ

in Asia

in terrõÅs

in the lands

Names of cities, towns, and islands and the nouns domus and ruÅs do not take the preposition in to express this meaning. They take the locative case (see p. 97).

ABLATIVE OF TIME WHEN OR WITHIN WHICH (IN)

These ablatives situate an event in time.

illoÅ dieÅ

on that day

eoÅ tempore

at that time

QuõÅnque dieÅbus urbs capta est.

The city was captured within ®ve days.

ABLATIVE OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENT (BY)

This ablative, without a preposition, expresses the means or instrument by which an action is performed.

Urbem gladiõÅs vincunt.

They conquer the city with swords.

ABLATIVE OF CAUSE (FROM)

This ablative, without a preposition, expresses the cause of an action.

DoloÅre clamat.

He shouts because of pain.

ABLATIVE OF PERSONAL AGENT (BY)

This ablative, with the preposition aÅ=ab, expresses the agent through whom an action in the passive voice has been performed.

Urbs aÅ mõÅlitibus vincta est.

The city was conquered by the soldiers.

Liber aÅ poeÅtaÅ scrõÅbeÅtur.

The book will be written by the poet.

Note: The soldiers and the poet are personal agents, that is, people. For nonpersonal agents, Latin uses the ablative of means: Urbs avaÅritiaÅ deÅleÅta est.

The city was destroyed by avarice.

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

93

ABLATIVE OF MANNER (WITH)

This ablative, with the preposition cum, expresses the manner in which an action is performed.

Cum gaudioÅ caneÅbat.

He was singing with joy.

However, if the ablative noun is modi®ed by an adjective, the preposition cum becomes optional:

MagnoÅ gaudioÅ

Cum magnoÅ gaudioÅ caneÅbat.

He sang with great joy.

MagnoÅ cum gaudioÅ1

ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION (FROM)

This ablative, like the ablative of place from which, expresses separation.

TeÅ lõÅberaÅboÅ metuÅ.

I will free you from fear.

VacuõÅ culpaÅ noÅn sunt mortuõÅ.

The dead are not free from blame.

ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON (FROM)

This ablative is used with a comparative adjective (see p. 24) and without a preposition to express that to which something is being compared.

Amor duÅrior est amõÅcitiaÅ.

Love is harder than friendship.

ABLATIVE OF DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE (BY)

This ablative is used with a comparative adjective to express, as the name suggests, the degree of difference in the comparison.

Amor multoÅ duÅrior est amõÅcitiaÅ.

Love is harder than friendship by much.

Hic altior tribus pedibus est quam ille. This man is taller than that man by three feet.

ABLATIVE OF DESCRIPTION (WITH)

A noun and adjective in the ablative case can describe another noun.

vir grandibus pedibus

a man with large feet

feÅmina magnaÅ sapientiaÅ

a woman of great wisdom

This usage is similar to the genitive of description (see p. 81).

1 Sometimes an adjective will move in front of a one-syllable preposition like this to give the expression a more pleasing and symmetrical form.

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CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

ABLATIVE OF RESPECT

This ablative is used to specify or limit a statement.

IlloÅs virtuÅte praeceÅdimus.

We surpass those men in respect to

excellence.

ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

An ablative noun and participle or two ablative nouns or adjectives may be used in combination to create what is essentially a subordinate clause.

MõÅlitibus clamantibus, reÅx ad

With the soldiers shouting, the king

urbem ambulat.

walks toward the city.

MultõÅs urbibus aÅ reÅge captõÅs,

With many cities having been captured

bypopulus timeÅbat.

the king, the people were afraid.

ReÅge deÅmentõÅ, mõÅliteÅs timeÅbant.

With the king being crazy, the soldiers

were afraid.

(For a fuller treatment of this construction, see pp. 145±146.) ABLATIVE WITH PREPOSITIONS

Many other ideas are expressed by the accusative with different prepositions (see p. 75).

Exercises

7. Translate the following. Then identify the italicized usages.

1. Animal est grandius pueroÅ.

______________________________________________________

2. AnimaÅlia aÅ pueroÅ duÅcuntur.

______________________________________________________

3. FeÅminae magnaÅ cuÅraÅ ad mare veÅneÅrunt.

______________________________________________________

4. FeÅminae RoÅmaÅ veÅneÅrunt

______________________________________________________

5. AvaÅritiaÅ poeÅtam expulistis.

______________________________________________________

6. GladioÅ poeÅtam expulistõÅ.

______________________________________________________

7. PoeÅtõÅs canentibus, dõÅ noÅs audieÅbant.

______________________________________________________

8. IlloÅ annoÅ multa bella in terraÅ erant.

______________________________________________________

9. ReÅx multoÅ deÅmentior est reÅgõÅnaÅ.

______________________________________________________

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

95

10. AnimaÅlia magnõÅs cornibus timeoÅ.

______________________________________________________

11. TimoÅre ex urbe reÅgõÅna cucurrit.

______________________________________________________

8. Translate the following sentences:

1. Sunt enim optimoÅ animoÅ, summoÅ coÅnsilioÅ, singulaÅrõÅ concordiaÅ.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

2. HõÅ omneÅs linguaÅ, instituÅtõÅs, leÅgibus inter seÅ differunt.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3. Sed AntoÅnius teneÅtur, premitur, urgeÅtur nunc eõÅs coÅpiõÅs quaÅs iam habeÅmus, mox eõÅs quaÅs paucõÅs dieÅbus novõÅ coÅsuleÅs comparaÅbunt.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. Quis enim hoÅc adulescente castior, quis modestior, quod in iuventuÅte habeÅmus illustrius exemplum veteris sanctitaÅtis?

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. Attulerat iam ille lõÅberae cõÅvitaÅtõÅ partim metuÅ partim patientiaÅ

consuetuÅdinem serviendõÅ. Cum illoÅ egoÅ teÅ dominandõÅ cupõÅditaÅte conferre possum, ceÅterõÅs veÅroÅ reÅbus nulloÅ modoÅ comparandus es.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. His auctoÅribus et ducibus, dõÅs iuvantibus, noÅbõÅs vigilantibus et multum in posterum proÅvidentibus, populoÅ RoÅmaÅnoÅ consentiente, erimus profectoÅ lõÅberõÅ brevõÅ tempore. IuÅcundioÅrem autem faciet lõÅbertaÅtem servituÅtis recordaÅtioÅ.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

Vocabulary

enim

for indeed

animus, -õÅ, m.

mind, spirit

summus, -a, -um

the highest, best

coÅnsilium, -õÅ, n.

advice, planning

singulaÅris, -e

remarkable, outstanding

concordia, -ae, f.

agreement

lingua, -ae, f.

tongue, language

instituÅtum, -õÅ, n.

custom, usage

lex, leÅgis, f.

law

differoÅ

differ

urgeoÅ, urgeÅre

press upon

coÅpiae, -aÅrum, f.

troops

mox (adv.)

soon

consul, -is, m.

consul

comparoÅ, comparaÅre

prepare, make ready

verbum, -õÅ, n.

word

appelloÅ, appellaÅre

call

castus, -a, -um

chaste

modestus, -a, -um

modest

iuventuÅs, -tuÅtis, f.

youth

illustris, -e

shining, illustrious

vetus, veteris

old, ancient

sanctitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

moral purity, sanctity

cõÅvitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

citizenry, state

partim (adv.)

partly

patientia, -ae, f.

patience, suffering

consuetuÅdoÅ, -tuÅdinis, f.

habit

servioÅ, servõÅre

to be a slave

cupõÅditaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

greed

dominor, dominaÅrõÅ, dominaÅtus sum

rule absolutely, dominate

conferoÅ

compare

auctor, -oÅris, m.

creator, producer

dux, ducis, m.

leader

iuvoÅ, iuvaÅre

help, assist

vigiloÅ, vigilaÅre

keep watch

in posterum

for the future

CHAPTER 6 Syntax of the Noun

97

proÅvideoÅ, proÅvideÅre

provide

consentioÅ, consentõÅre

be in agreement

profectoÅ (adv.)

without question

brevis, -e

brief, short

iuÅcundus, -a, -um

pleasing

autem

moreover

recordaÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

recollection, memory

lõÅbertaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

liberty

servituÅs, -tuÅtis, f.

slavery

Locative Case

The locative case expresses location. It is an older case that, for the most part, has died out in the language but survives in the names of cities, towns, islands, and the nouns domus and ruÅs.

Except for these instances, location is usually expressed by the ablative case without the preposition in.

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CHAPTER 7

Syntax of the

Adjective

The function of an adjective is to modify a noun. To do so, it must agree with the noun in gender, number, and case.

Generally, adjectives follow the nouns that they modify.

PoeÅta deÅmeÅns magnoÅ gaudioÅ luÅnam

The insane poet sees the cold moon with

frõÅgidam videt.

great joy.

Note that the adjective magnoÅ precedes its noun gaudioÅ. This is commonly the case with adjectives denoting quantity rather than quality. For example, Latin will use multa pecuÅnia rather than pecuÅnia multa.

This is also the case with demonstrative and interrogative adjectives: quis vir?

what man?

ille vir

that man

Predicate Adjective

Sometimes an adjective is used in an equation or assertion. It must still agree with its noun.

Ventus est magnus.

The wind is great.

If a group of nouns is mixed masculine and feminine, the adjective will take the masculine.

VirõÅ et feÅminae sunt miserõÅ.

The men and women are wretched.

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Substantive Adjective

Sometimes an adjective does not modify a noun but stands alone as if it were itself a noun. This is called the substantive use of the adjective.1

Bonus ad mare ambulat.

The good man walks to the water.

It is translated on the basis of its gender and number, here masculine singularÐ

hence the good man.

Bonae ad mare ambulant.

The good women walk to the water.

bonus, malus, et deÅformis

the good (man), the bad (man), and the

ugly (man)

Adverbial Use of the Adjective

Sometimes an adjective, rather than saying something general about a noun, will say something about that noun that is true only for the sentence in which it occurs. It seems to function more as an adverb.

Ille vir, cum hoc audõÅvit, sapieÅns

That man, when he heard this, wisely

discessit.

departed.

Often such a usage will occur in the nominative case, modifying the subject, and often it will occur near the verb, i.e., in an adverbial position. Notice the difference: SapieÅns, cum hoc audõÅvit, discessit.

The wise man, when he heard this,

departed.

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

The comparative or superlative degree of the adjective may be used alone as a strengthened form of the positive.

Pater est sapientior.

The father is very wise.

Pater est sapientissimus.

The father is extremely wise.

Comparative adjectives often occur with an ablative of comparison nearby (see p. 93).

Pater est sapientior fõÅlioÅ.

The father is wiser than the son.

Comparative adjectives may also express a comparison using the adverb quam.

Pater est sapientior quam fõÅlius.

The father is wiser than the son (is).

1 ` Substantive' is another term for noun.

CHAPTER 7 Syntax of the Adjective

101

When quam is used, both terms in the comparison must be in the same case: fõÅlius on page 100 is nominative to correspond with pater.

DõÅcoÅ patrem sapientioÅrem esse

I say that the father is wiser than the

quam fõÅlium.

son.

Here fõÅlium is accusative, to correspond to patrem, itself the subject of an indirect statement.

Superlative adjectives often take a partitive genitive.

PecuÅnia est pessima omnium maloÅrum. Money is the worst of all evil things.

Sometimes the superlative will occur with quam to express the adjective's meaning `às strongly as possible.'

Pater est quam sapientissimus.

The father is as wise as possible.

Exercises

1. Translate the following.

1. MalõÅ pecuÅniam amant.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

2. Multa pecuÅnia est multoÅ melior amoÅre.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3. Multa pecuÅnia est multoÅ melior quam multus amor.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. Aurum pulcherrimum omnium bonoÅrum est.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. DõÅcoÅ aquam esse quam pulcherrimam.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. PoeÅta miser deÅ avaÅritiaÅ RoÅmaÅnoÅrum claÅmaÅbat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

7. PoeÅta deÅ avaÅritiaÅ RoÅmaÅnoÅrum miser claÅmaÅbat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

2. Translate the following.

1. LuÅce sunt claÅrioÅra noÅbõÅs tua coÅnsilia omnia.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 7 Syntax of the Adjective

2. Hanc veÅroÅ taeterrimam beÅluam quis ferre potest?

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3. Habet quidem certeÅ reÅs puÅblica aduleÅscentõÅs noÅbilissimoÅs paraÅtoÅs deÅfensoÅreÅs.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. Quis claÅrioÅribus virõÅs quoÅdam tempore iuÅcundior, quis turpioÅribus coniunctior? Quis cõÅvis melioÅrum partium aliquandoÅ, quis taetrior hostis huic cõÅvitaÅtõÅ? Quis in voluptaÅtibus inquinaÅtior, quis in laboÅribus patientior? Quis in rapaÅcitaÅte avaÅrior, quis in largõÅtioÅne effuÅsior?

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

Vocabulary

lux, luÅcis, f.

light

claÅrus, -a, -um

clear, bright

coÅnsilium, -õÅ, n.

advice, planning

taeter, -tra, -trum

horrible, foul

beÅlua, -ae, f.

beast

quidem (adv.)

indeed

adulesceÅns, -ntis

young, youthful

paroÅ, paraÅre

prepare

deÅfensor, -oÅris, m.

defender

iuÅcundus, -a, -um

pleasing

turpis, -e

foul

coniunctus, -a, um

conjoined

aliquandoÅ (adv.)

ever, at any time

hostis, -is, -ium, m.

enemy

cõÅvitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

citizenry, state

voluptaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

pleasure

inquinaÅtus, -a, -um

dirty, stained

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103

labor, -oÅris, m.

labor, work

rapaÅcitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

rapacity

avaÅrus, -a, -um

greedy

largõÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

extravagant expenditure, bribery

effuÅsus, -a, -um

unrestrained

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CHAPTER 8

Syntax of the

Simple Sentence

A simple sentence is an independent clause; that is, unlike a subordinate clause, it can stand alone as a complete unit of meaning. This is what makes a sentence.

Most simple sentences have a subject and a verb:

Vir ambulat.

The man walks.

In Latin the subject may be implied in the verb by its ending: AmbulaÅmus.

We walk.

Sometimes the verb ``to be'' may be left out of a sentence: Ille vir sapiens.

That man is wise.

Because Latin is an in¯ected language, it does not rely upon word order to determine the grammatical meaning of its phrases and sentences. This does not mean that its word order is random.

Latin has a normal, neutral order that tends to place the subject of a sentence ®rst and the verb last. Usually direct objects and adverbs gravitate toward the verb, with other information such as datives and prepositional phrases falling in the middle of the sentence.

Consider the following sequence:

DeÅlet.

He destroys.

MõÅliteÅs deÅlent.

The soldiers destroy.

MõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleÅbunt.

The soldiers will destroy the city.

MõÅliteÅs gladiõÅs urbem deÅleÅbant.

The soldiers were destroying the city

with swords.

MõÅliteÅs cum nautõÅs gladiõÅs urbem

The soldiers with the sailors had

proÅ reÅge deÅleÅverant.

destroyed the city with swords on behalf

of the king.

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CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

Remember that adjectives and genitives tend to follow the nouns they modify: MõÅliteÅs reÅgnõÅ audaÅceÅs gladiõÅs magnõÅs

The bold soldiers of the kingdom

urbem miserrimam proÅ reÅge caecoÅ

destroyed the most wretched city with

deÅleÅveÅrunt.

great swords on behalf of the blind

king.

Exercise

1. Translate the following.

1. Nauta videt.

_______________________________________________________

2. Nauta montem videÅbit.

_______________________________________________________

3. Nauta oculõÅs montem võÅdit.

_______________________________________________________

4. Nauta bellum in montibus oculõÅs võÅderat.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

5. MultõÅs cum lacrimõÅs nauta miser bellum pessimum in montibus regnõÅ

videÅbat.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

6. MoÅns videÅtur.

_______________________________________________________

7. MoÅns aÅ nautaÅ videÅtur.

_______________________________________________________

8. Bellum aÅ nautaÅ in montibus visum est.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Indicative Mood

The indicative is the mood of fact. It presents information simply as true. (Tenses of the indicative should be translated according to the paradigms given in Chapter 2.) Exercises

2. Translate the following sentences, paying particular attention to the tense of the verb.

1. ReÅx cõÅveÅs terret.

________________________________

2. ReÅx cõÅveÅs terreÅbit.

________________________________

CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

107

3. ReÅx cõÅveÅs terruit.

_______________________________

4. ReÅx cõÅveÅs terruerit.

________________________________

5. ReÅx cõÅveÅs terruerat.

_______________________________

6. ReÅx cõÅveÅs terreÅbat.

_______________________________

3. Translate the following.

1. ArguÅmentõÅs ageÅmus, signõÅs luÅce omnõÅ claÅrioÅribus crõÅmina refelleÅmus; reÅs cum reÅ, causa cum causaÅ, ratioÅ cum ratioÅne pugnaÅbit.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. HoÅrum duoÅrum crõÅminum videoÅ auctoÅrem, videoÅ fontem, videoÅ

certum noÅmen et caput.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. VeÅrum haec genera virtuÅtum noÅn soÅlum in moÅribus nostrõÅs sed vix iam in librõÅs reperiuntur. Chartae quoque quae illam pristinam seveÅitaÅtem contineÅbant obsoleÅveÅrunt.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Vocabulary

arguÅmentum, -õÅ, n.

argument

agoÅ, agere, eÅgõÅ, aÅctus

act, proceed

signum, -õÅ, n.

sign, proof

lux, luÅcis, f.

light

claÅrus, -a, -um

clear, bright

crõÅmen, crõÅminis, n.

criminal charge

reÅs reõÅ, f.

(here) fact

causa, -ae, f.

case

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CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

refelloÅ, refellere

refute, disprove

ratioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

reasoning, reckoning

auctor, -oÅris, m.

source, creator

foÅns, -ntis, -ium, m.

fountain, source

caput, capitis, n.

head

veÅrum

but

genus, generis, n.

type, kind

virtuÅs, -tuÅtis, f.

excellence

moÅs, moÅris, -ium, m.

custom

vix (adv.)

scarcely

liber, librõÅ, m.

book

reperioÅ, reperõÅre

discover

charta, -ae, f.

page

quoque

even, also

pristinus, -a, -um

ancient, pristine

seveÅritaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

severity, seriousness

contineoÅ, contineÅre

contain

obsolescoÅ, obsolescere

fall into disuse, become forgotten

Exercise

4. Translate the following passage.

Inter terram caelumque [in] eoÅdem spõÅrituÅ pendent certõÅs discreÅta spatiõÅs septem sõÅdera quae ab incessuÅ vocaÅmus errantia. EoÅrum medius soÅl fertur, amplissimaÅ

magnituÅdine ac potestaÅte nec temporum modo terraÅrumque, sed sõÅderum etiam ipsoÅrum caelõÅque rector. Hunc esse mundõÅ toÅtius animum ac mentem, hunc principaÅle natuÅrae regimen ac nuÅmen creÅdere decet opera eius aestimanteÅs. Hic luÅcem reÅbus ministrat aufertque tenebraÅs, hic reliqua sõÅdera occultat, illustrat; hic viceÅs temporum annumque semper renascentem ex usuÅ natuÅrae temperat; hic caelõÅ tristitiam discutit atque etiam humaÅnõÅ nuÅbila animõÅ sereÅnat; hic suum luÅmen ceÅterõÅs quoque sõÅderibus faenerat, praeclaÅrus, eximius, omnia intueÅns, omnia etiam exaudieÅns. . .

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

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109

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Vocabulary

terra, -ae, f.

earth, land

caelum, -õÅ, n.

heaven

spõÅritus, -uÅs, m.

breath, air

pendeoÅ, pendeÅre

hang

certus, -a, -um

certain

discreÅtus, -a, -um

separate

spatiam, -õÅ, n.

space, interval

septem

seven

sõÅdus, sõÅderis, n.

star

incessus, -uÅs, m.

walking, movement

vocoÅ, vocaÅre

call

erroÅ, erraÅre

wander (here errantia  planets)

medius, -a, -um

in the middle, central

soÅl, soÅlis, m.

sun

fertur

(here) moves

amplus, -a, -um

large

magnituÅdoÅ, -inis, f.

size, magnitude

potestaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

power

tempus, temporis, n.

time, season

rector, -oÅris, m.

helmsman, ruler

mundus, -õÅ, m.

world

principaÅlis, -e

original, principal

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CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

regimen, -inis, n.

rule

nuÅmen, -inis, n.

spirit

creÅdoÅ, creÅdere

believe

decet

it is ®tting (acc. and inf.)

opus, operis, n.

work

aestimoÅ, aestimaÅre

judge, reckon, estimate

lux, luÅcis, f.

light

ministroÅ, ministraÅre

serve, provide

auferoÅ

remove

tenebrae, -aÅrum, f. pl.

darkness, shadows

reliquus, -a, -um

remaining

occultoÅ, occultaÅre

hide, conceal

illustroÅ, illustraÅre

illuminate

vicis, vicis, f.

turning, succession

annus, -õÅ, m.

year

renascor, renascõÅ, renaÅtus sum

be reborn

temperoÅ, temperaÅre

restrain, regulate

tristitia, -ae, f.

gloom, sadness

discutioÅ, discutere

strike away, scatter

nuÅbila, -oÅrum, n. pl.

clouds

sereÅnoÅ, sereÅnaÅre

make calm, pacify

luÅmen, -inis, n.

light

faeneroÅ, faeneraÅre

lend

praeclaÅrus, -a, -um

extremely bright

eximius, -a, -um

outstanding

intueor, intueÅrõÅ

look upon, watch

Imperative Mood

As stated earlier, the imperative is the mood for giving commands. It should be translated according to the paradigms given in Chapter 2.

taceÅte

be silent (pl.)

abõÅ

go away

CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

111

NEGATIVE COMMANDS

For negative commands, Latin does not simply negate the imperative, but it uses a combination of noÅlõÅ for the singular or noÅlõÅte for the plural with the present in®nitive.

NoÅlõÅ ambulaÅre!

Do not walk! (sing.)

NoÅlõÅte loquõÅ!

Do not speak! (pl.)

NoÅlõÅ videÅrõÅ!

Do not be seen! (sing.)

Latin also expresses negative commands using either the present or perfect subjunctive with the negative neÅ:

NeÅ ambuleÅs!

Do not walk! (sing.)

NeÅ ambulaÅveris

Do not walk! (sing.)

NeÅ inter®ciaÅtis!

Do not kill! (pl.)

NeÅ interfeÅceritis

Do not kill! (pl.)

Exercises

5. Translate the following.

1. NoÅlõÅte clamaÅre!

_______________________________________________________

2. NeÅ librum scrõÅbaÅs!

_______________________________________________________

3. NeÅ fõÅlium pepuleris!

_______________________________________________________

4. NoÅlõÅte pellõÅ!

_______________________________________________________

5. NeÅ urbem deÅleÅveritis, o mõÅliteÅs!

_______________________________________________________

6. NoÅlõÅte urbem deÅleÅre, o mõÅliteÅs!

_______________________________________________________

7. Urbem deÅleÅte, o mõÅliteÅs!

_______________________________________________________

8. Urbem deÅleÅ, o militeÅs!

_______________________________________________________

6. Translate the following.

1. AudõÅte, audõÅte, patreÅs conscriptõÅ, et cognoÅscite reõÅ puÅblicae vulnera.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. ConservaÅte igitur reõÅ puÅblicae, iuÅdiceÅs, cõÅvem bonaÅrum artium, bonaÅrum partium, bonoÅrum viroÅrum.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

3. NeÅ meÅ hodieÅ, cum istõÅ ut proÅvocaÅvit responderoÅ, oblõÅtum esse puteÅtis meõÅ.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. Quam ob rem disceÅde atque nunc mihi timoÅrem eÅripe: si est veÅrus, neÅ

opprimar, sõÅn falsus, ut tandem aliquandoÅ timeÅre deÅsinam.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Vocabulary

patreÅs conscriptõÅ

senators

cognoÅscoÅ, cognoÅscere

learn

vulnis, vulneris, n.

wound

conservoÅ, conservaÅre

save, preserve

igitur (adv.)

therefore

iuÅdex, iuÅdicis, m.

judge

cõÅvis, cõÅvis, -ium, m.

citizen

ars, artis, -ium, f.

skill, art

pars, partis, -ium, f.

part

hodieÅ (adv.)

today

proÅvocoÅ, proÅvocaÅre

provoke

respondeoÅ, respondeÅre

respond

oblõÅviscor, oblõÅviscõÅ, oblõÅtus sum

forget

putoÅ, putaÅre

think

quam ob rem

for which reason

disceÅdo, disceÅdere

leave, depart

timor, -oÅris, m.

fear

eÅripioÅ, eÅripere

tear away, remove

veÅrus, -a, -um

true, real

opprimoÅ, opprimere

oppress

sõÅn

but if

falsus, -a, -um

false, unreal

tandem (adv.)

®nally, at least

aliquandoÅ

at some time, ever

timeoÅ, timeÅre

fear

deÅsinoÅ, deÅsinere

cease (inf.)

CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

113

Subjunctive Mood: Independent Uses

Chapter 2 stated that the subjunctive should not be translated in isolation, but that its translation often involved such English words as ``could,' ``would,' and ``might.'

The subjunctive mood does most of its work in subordinate clauses, usually governed by conjunctions or a grammatical context that determines its meaning.

(These will be treated in the next chapter.) However, the subjunctive can also be used as the main verb of an independent clause. Following are its main independent uses.

POTENTIAL

The subjunctive may express potentiality or possibility. The present tense is used for present potentiality, and the imperfect for past potentiality: MõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleant.

The soldiers could destroy the city.

MõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleÅrent.

The soldiers could have destroyed the

city.

DELIBERATIVE

This form of the subjunctive is used, often in the ®rst person, to ask questions not of fact but of deliberation:

Urbem deÅleaÅmus?

Should we destroy the city?

Quid1 urbem deÅleÅreÅmus?

Why should we have destroyed the city?

Again the present subjunctive is used for deliberation in present time, and the imperfect subjunctive for past deliberation.

OPTATIVE

The optative subjunctive expresses a wish. Often the word utinam, `ìf only,'

accompanies this usage.2

The present subjunctive expresses a wish in the present time: Utinam mõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleant!

If only the soldiers would destroy the

city!

The imperfect subjunctive also expresses a wish in the present time, but one that cannot come true:

Utinam mõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleÅrent!

If only the soldiers were destroying the

city! (We know that they are not.)

1 Quid here is an adverbial accusative, a common usage best translated as ` why?''

2 Less often, ut may be used.

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CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

The pluperfect subjunctive expresses a wish in the past that could not have come true:

Utinam mõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleÅvissent!

If only the soldiers had destroyed the

city! (We know that they did not.)

To negate an optative subjunctive, Latin uses neÅ rather than noÅn: Utinam neÅ canant!

If only they were not singing!

HORTATORY OR JUSSIVE

The subjunctive can be used to express commands, mostly in the ®rst and third persons.3 (For second-person commands, usually the imperative is used.) Generally the present subjunctive is used:

Urbem deÅleaÅmus!

Let us destroy the city!

MõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleant!

Let the soldiers destroy the city!

To negate these, Latin uses neÅ.

NeÅ loquaÅtur!

Let him not speak.

Exercises

7. Translate the following. Then identify the italicized usages.

1. Utinam nautae nostrõÅ võÅcissent!

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. Ut nautae vincant!

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. Nautae vincant.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. Ad mare ambulem?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

5. Ad mare ambulaÅreÅmus?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3 Customarily the ®rst-person usage is called hortatory and the third-person jussive.

CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

115

6. Ad mare ambuleÅmus!

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

7. Utinam ad mare ambulaÅvisseÅmus!

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

8. MõÅliteÅs ad mare noÅn ambulaÅrent?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

8. Translate the following.

1. Ad decus et ad lõÅbertaÅtem naÅtõÅ sumus: aut haec teneaÅmus aut cum dõÅgnitaÅte moriaÅmur.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. Quis enim noÅn timeat omnia proÅvidentem et coÅgitantem et animad-vertentem et omnia ad seÅ pertineÅre putantem curioÅsum et pleÅnum negoÅtiõÅ deum?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. O stultitiam! Stultitiamne dõÅcam an impudentiam singulaÅrem?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. DeÅtur aliquõÅ luÅdus aetaÅtõÅ sit adulescentia lõÅberior; noÅn omnia voluptaÅ-

tibus deÅnegentur; noÅn semper superet veÅra illa et deÅrecta ratioÅ; vincat aliquandoÅ cupiditaÅs voluptaÅsque ratioÅnem.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

5. Utinam tam facile veÅra invenõÅre possim quam falsa convincere!

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

6. Utinam cum Caesar societaÅtem aut numquam coisseÅs aut numquam direÅmisseÅs!

_______________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

7. Quid enim meÅ interpoÅnerem audaÅciae tuae?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Vocabulary

decus, decoris, n.

honor

lõÅbertaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

freedom

aut. . .aut

either. . .or

nascor, nascõÅ, naÅtus sum

be born

dõÅgnitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

dignity, prestige

enim

for indeed

proÅvideoÅ, proÅvideÅre

foresee, provide

coÅgitoÅ, coÅgitaÅre

think, ponder

animadvertoÅ, animadvertere

notice

pertineoÅ, pertineÅre

extend to, relate to

putoÅ, putaÅre

think

curioÅsus, -a, -um

careful, attentive

pleÅnus, -a, -um

full

negoÅtium, -õÅ, n.

business, concern

stultitia, -ae, f.

stupidity

impudentia, -ae, f.

shamelessness

singulaÅris, -e

singular, remarkable

luÅdus, -õÅ, m.

sport, gaming

aetaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

age, time of life

adulescentia, -ae, f.

youth

lõÅber, lõÅbera, lõÅberum

free

voluptaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

pleasure

deÅnegoÅ, deÅnegaÅre

deny, refuse

superoÅ, superaÅre

overcome

veÅrus, -a, -um

true, real

deÅrectus, -a, -um

upright, straight

ratioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

reason, reckoning

vincoÅ, vincere

conquer

aliquandoÅ (adv.)

sometimes

cupiditaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

desire

CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

117

falsus, -a, -um

false

convincoÅ, convincere

defeat, refute

societaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

alliance

numquam (adv.)

never

coeoÅ, coõÅre

enter

dirimoÅ, dirimere, direÅmõÅ, diremptus

rip apart, destroy

interpoÅno, interponere

place as an obstacle, interpose

Participles

Participles are de®ned as verbal adjectives. That is, they combine features of adjectives and verbs.

As adjectives, they modify nouns and must agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case. They may also be used as substantives.

poeÅta caneÅns

the singing poet

urbs capta

the captured city

captus

the captured man

As verbs they show tenseÐpresent, perfect, or futureÐand voiceÐactive or passive.

They may also govern direct objects and take many constructions of ®nite verbs.

PoeÅta luÅnam videÅns canit.

The poet seeing the moon sings.

Here luÅnam is the direct object of the participle videÅns, which itself modi®es the subject poeÅta.

Often, as in the above example, the participle separates itself from the noun it modi®es in order to enclose anything it governsÐin this case, the direct object luÅnam.

MõÅles urbem a reÅge captam deÅleÅtuÅrus

The soldier about to destroy the city

claÅmat.

captured by the king shouts.

Note how a reÅge is enclosed by urbem captam, which is itself enclosed by mõÅleÅs deÅleÅtuÅrus.

Because participles do so much work in Latin, it is often useful to translate them more fully as relative clauses in English:

The soldier who is about to destroy the city which was captured by the king is shouting.

It is important to realize, however, that the tense of a participle is not an independent time value as it is for forms of the indicative, but is only relative to the tense of the main verb in its clause.

The time value of a present participle is simultaneous with that of the main verb:

PoeÅta caneÅns luÅnam videt.

The poet who is singing sees the moon.

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CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

The present participle caneÅns tells us that the poet is singing at the same time as he sees the moon.

PoeÅta caneÅns luÅnam videÅbat.

The poet who was singing saw the

moon.

Now the time value of the present participle must be simultaneous with that of the main verb, which is in the past, videÅbat, and so it is translated ``who was singing.'

The time value of the perfect participle is prior to that of the main verb: MõÅles urbem a reÅge captam deÅlet.

The soldier destroys the city which was

captured by the king.

The perfect participle captam tells us that the capture took place prior to the action of the main verb deÅlet.

If the main verb is itself in the past tense, the perfect participle will express a time prior to that time:

MõÅles urbem a reÅge captam deÅleÅvit.

The soldier destroyed the city which had

been conquered by the king.

If the main verb is in the future, the perfect participle will again express a time prior to that:

MõÅles urbem a reÅge captam deÅleÅbit.

The soldier will destroy the city which

has been captured by the king.

The time value of the future active participle is subsequent to that of the main verb:

MõÅles urbem deÅleÅtuÅrus claÅmat.

The soldier who is going to destroy the

city is shouting.

The destruction denoted by deÅleÅtuÅrus will take place after the present time signi®ed by claÅmat.

MõÅles urbem deÅleÅtuÅrus claÅmaÅvit.

The soldier who was about to destroy the

city shouted.

Exercise

9. Translate the following.

1. poeÅta caneÅns

______________________________________________________

2. lõÅbertaÅs deÅleÅta

______________________________________________________

3. lõÅbertaÅs avaÅritiaÅ deÅleÅta

______________________________________________________

4. lõÅbertaÅs avaÅritiaÅ mõÅlitum deÅleÅta

______________________________________________________

5. poeÅta claÅmaÅtuÅrus

______________________________________________________

CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

119

6. poeÅta in monte claÅmaÅtuÅrus

______________________________________________________

7. poeÅta in monte deÅ lõÅbertaÅte claÅmaÅtuÅrus

______________________________________________________

8. poeÅta in monte deÅ lõÅbertaÅte avaÅritiaÅ mõÅlitum deÅleÅtaÅ claÅmaÅtuÅrus.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

9. PoeÅta in monte deÅ lõÅbertaÅte avaÅritiaÅ mõÅlitum deÅleÅtaÅ claÅmatuÅrus moritur.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

10. PoeÅta in monte deÅ lõÅbertaÅte avaÅritiaÅ mõÅlitum deÅleÅtaÅ claÅmatuÅrus mortuus est.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

11. Puer ad mare ambulaÅns servoÅs captoÅs timet.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

12. Puer ad mare ambulaÅns servoÅs aÅ nautõÅs captoÅs timeÅbat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

13. Puer ad mare ambulaÅns servoÅs animaÅlia inter®cienteÅs videt.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

14. Puer ad mare ambulaÅns animaÅlia a servõÅs interfecta võÅdit.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

Relative Clauses

Relative clauses, like participle phrases, are both adjectival and govern grammatical constructions themselves. They are adjectival in that they modify an antecedent to which they are attached by a relative pronoun. The relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. It takes its case from the grammatical function it ful®lls within its own clause.

ReÅx quem poeÅta timet pecuÅniam amat. The king whom the poet fears loves money.

Most often a relative clause begins with a relative pronoun and ends with a verb: quem poeÅta timet

The relative pronoun quem is masculine accusative singular. Its antecedent reÅx is masculine nominative singular. The pronoun quem is masculine and singular to 120

CHAPTER 8 Syntax of the Simple Sentence

agree with reÅx, and accusative because it is the direct object of the verb timet within its own clause.

ReÅx cui gladium dedistõÅ aÅ poeÅtaÅ

The king to whom you gave a sword is

timeÅtur.

feared by the poet.

In agreement with its antecedent reÅx, cui is masculine singular. It is dative because it is the indirect object of its own clause.

If it can be easily understood in context, the antecedent of a relative pronoun may be left out:

QuõÅ pecuÅniam amant sunt miserõÅ.

Those who love money are wretched.

The antecedent of quõÅ is understood to be the subject of the main verb sunt.

Exercise

10. Translate the following. Explain the case of the relative pronoun.

1. ReÅgõÅna quam reÅx timet aÅ poeÅtaÅ amaÅtur.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. ReÅx a quoÅ reÅgõÅna timeÅtur poeÅtam oÅdit.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. ReÅx quem reÅgõÅna oÅdit animaÅlia magnoÅrum cornuum timet.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. AnimaÅlia quae ad urbem ducta erant aÅ reÅge quõÅ poeÅtaÅs oÅdit multum timeÅbantur.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

5. AnimaÅlia quibus cornua magna erant a mõÅlitibus reÅgis interfecta sunt.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

6. Corpora animaÅlium quoÅrum cornua vendita erant in ignõÅ poÅneÅbantur.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

CHAPTER 9

Syntax of the

Complex Sentence

A complex sentence is one that contains one or more subordinate clauses that are said to depend on the main or independent clause. This means that they cannot stand alone as sentences, but must exist in conjunction with an independent clause.

When he got home, he destroyed the television.

Because he destroyed the television, his sister was angry.

``When he got home'' and ``because he destroyed the television'' are subordinate clauses. They cannot stand alone as sentences. A subordinate clause gives more information about the main clause by relating it to other circumstances.

We say that words such as ` when'' and ``because'' are subordinating conjunctions. They serve to introduce subordinate clauses and usually tell you what clauses mean.

``When'' introduces a temporal clause. ``When he got home'' is a temporal clause. It situates the action of the main clause in time, telling us when he destroyed the television.

``Because'' introduces a causal clause. ``Because he destroyed the television'' is a causal clause, telling us why his sister was angry.

Latin has many different kinds of subordinate clauses. They are categorized according to the different kinds of information they offer about the main clause.

Although there are many such categories, it may be convenient to simply think of their differences as differences in the vocabulary of subordinating conjunctions.

Some subordinating conjunctions take the indicative, and some take the subjunctive. Some can take either, with differences in meaning. Those that take the indicative will take whatever tense their sense requires. Those that take the subjunctive, however, are bound by two important grammatical considerations, 121

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

known as sequence of tenses and relative time. These will apply to almost all uses of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses:

Sequence of Tenses

Subordinate uses of the subjunctive follow thè`sequence of tenses.' This means that the tense of the subjunctive used in a subordinate clause will depend on the tense of the verb in the main clause.

There are four tenses of the subjunctive:

Present

Imperfect

Perfect

Pluperfect

If the main verb refers to the present or future, the subjunctive in a subordinate clause that follows it must be either present or perfect. This is said to be in primary sequence. If the main verb refers to the past, the subjunctive in a subordinate clause that follows it must be either imperfect or pluperfect. This is said to be in secondary sequence.1

In each sequence, then, there are two possible tenses of the subjunctive that may be used. The difference between the two in each case will be one of relative time.

RELATIVE TIME

The concept of relative time ®rst appeared in the discussion of participles (p. 117).

There it was said that the tense of the participle is not an objective time value, but one that can be understood only in relation to the time of the main verb. The same is true of subjunctives in subordinate clauses.

In primary sequence, the present subjunctive expresses a time simultaneous with (or sometimes subsequent to) that of the main verb: ScioÅ quid faciaÅs.

I know what you are doing.

The present subjunctive tells us that whatever you are doing is happening at the same time as my knowing.

The perfect subjunctive expresses a time prior to that of the main verb: ScioÅ quid feÅceris.

I know what you did.

The perfect subjunctive tells us that what you did happened before the time of my knowing, as if to say `Ì now know what you did then.'

1 The perfect indicative is unusual in that it has potentially two different time values, one past (``did'') and one present (``have done''). Because this is so, it may lead to primary or secondary sequence in a given context.

However, this should be something to consider at more advanced stages of study.

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

123

In secondary sequence, the imperfect subjunctive expresses a time simultaneous with (sometimes subsequent to) that of the main verb: ScieÅbam quid facereÅs.

I knew what you were doing.

The pluperfect subjunctive expresses a time prior to that of the main verb: ScieÅbam quid feÅcisseÅs.

I knew what you had done.

As stated above, though there are many different categories of subordinate clauses, for the most part it is possible to handle them correctly by knowing what their subordinating conjunctions mean and remembering the rules of sequence for uses of the subjunctive.

Temporal Clauses

Temporal clauses situate the action of the main clause in time by relating it to something else. There are many different subordinating conjunctions that introduce them.

Some temporal conjunctions take the indicative:

postquam

after

cum

when

ut

when

ubi

when

Cum mõÅliteÅs urbem võÅceÅrunt,

When the soldiers conquered the town,

servõÅ fuÅgeÅrunt.

the slaves ¯ed.

Some can take the indicative or subjunctive:

antequam

before

priusquam

before

dum

until

doÅnec

until

quoad

until

They take the indicative to represent facts:

PoeÅtae fuÅgeÅrunt antequam mõÅliteÅs

The poets ¯ed before the soldiers

urbem ceÅpeÅrunt.

captured the city.

The Latin tells us that the capture of the city actually took place.

MõÅliteÅs pugnaÅbant doÅnec poeÅtae

The soldiers fought until the poets ¯ed.

fuÅgeÅrunt.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

These conjunctions take the subjunctive to represent something foreseen or anticipated:

PoÅetae fuÅgeÅrunt antequam mõÅliteÅs

The poets ¯ed before the soldiers could

urbem caperent.

capture the city.

The Latin tells us that the capture of the city is something anticipated by the poets. It does not tell us whether or not it actually took place.

The imperfect subjunctive is used here because the main verb fuÅgeÅrunt refers to the past, creating secondary sequence. In primary sequence, the present subjunctive would be used:

PoeÅtae fugient antequam mõÅliteÅs

The poets will ¯ee before the soldiers

urbem capiant.

can capture the city.

Causal Clauses

A causal clause gives the cause for the main clause.

Some conjunctions take the indicative:

quando

because

quoniam

because

Quoniam mõÅliteÅs urbem ceÅpeÅrunt,

Because the soldiers captured the city,

poeÅtae fuÅgeÅrunt.

the poets ¯ed.

Some take the subjunctive:

cum

because

Cum mõÅliteÅs urbem ceÅpissent,

Because the soldiers had captured the

poeÅtae fuÅgeÅrunt.

city, the poets ¯ed.

The pluperfect subjunctive ceÅpissent is used in secondary sequence and shows time prior to the main verb.

The imperfect subjunctive would show time simultaneous: Cum mõÅliteÅs urbem caperent,

Because the soldiers were capturing the

poeÅtae fuÅgeÅrunt.

city, the poets ¯ed.

In primary sequence the present subjunctive shows time simultaneous: Cum mõÅliteÅs urbem capiant,

Because the soldiers are capturing the

poeÅtae fugiunt.

city, the poets are ¯eeing.

The perfect subjunctive shows time prior:

Cum mõÅliteÅs urbem ceÅperint,

Because the soldiers have captured the

poeÅtae fuÅgiunt.

city, the poets are ¯eeing.

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

125

Some conjunctions can take the indicative or the subjunctive: quod

because

quia

because

They take the indicative to assert a cause as fact.

Quod mõÅliteÅs urbem ceÅpeÅrunt,

Because the soldiers (actually) captured

poeÅtae fuÅgeÅrunt.

the city, the poets ¯ed.

They take the subjunctive to express a cause given by someone other than the writer of the sentence:

The poets ¯ed (supposedly) because the

PoeÅtae fuÅgeÅrunt quod mõÅliteÅs

soldiers had captured the city.

urbem ceÅpissent.

Concessive Clauses

Concessive clauses begin with the word `àlthough.' They concede that, although something is true, the main clause remains unaffected and is still true. Often the main clause will contain the word tamen, ``nevertheless.'

Some conjunctions take the indicative:

etsõÅ

although

quamquam

although

Some take the subjunctive:

cum

although

quamvõÅs

although

Cum mõÅliteÅs urbem ceÅpissent,

Although the soldiers had captured the

poeÅtae tamen noÅn fugeÅrunt.

city, the poets nevertheless did not

¯ee.

The pluperfect subjunctive is used in secondary sequence, showing time prior to that of the main verb fuÅgeÅrunt.

Exercises

1. Translate the following. Pay close attention to the mood of the verb in the subordinate clauses.

1. Quia servõÅ miserrimõÅ erant, reÅx populoÅ aurum dabat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

2. ReÅx populoÅ aurum dabat quod servõÅ miserrimõÅ essent.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

3. EtsõÅ servõÅ miserrimõÅ sunt, aurum populoÅ reÅx noÅn doÅnaÅbit.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. Cum reÅx populoÅ aurum dedisset, servõÅ noÅn claÅmaÅbant.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. Cum reÅx populoÅ aurum dedit, claÅmaÅveÅrunt.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. Quoniam reÅgõÅna capta erat, reÅx bellum paraÅbat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

7. ReÅx bellum paraÅbat priusquam reÅgõÅna inter®cereÅtur.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

8. Bellum gereÅbant doÅnec reÅx interfectus est.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

9. Bellum gereÅbant dum reÅx redõÅret.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

10. Cum reÅx interfectus esset, reÅgõÅna claÅmaÅbat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

11. Cum reÅx interfectus esset, reÅgõÅna tamen feÅlix erat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

12. Ut luÅna discessit, luÅx dieÅõÅ veÅnit.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

2. Translate the following sentences.

1. Tum deÅnique inter®cieÅre, cum iam neÅmoÅ tam improbus, tam perditus, tam tuõÅ similis invenõÅrõÅ poterit.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. Neque ideo minus ef®caÅceÅs sunt oratioÅneÅs nostrae quia ad aureÅs iuÅdicantium cum voluptaÅte perveniunt.

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3. Nam interitus quidem tuõÅ quis bonus noÅn esset auctor, cum in eoÅ saluÅs et võÅta optimõÅ cuiusque, lõÅertaÅs populõÅ RoÅmaÅnõÅ dõÅgnitaÅsque consis-teret?

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4. Sed antequam aggrediar ad ea quae a teÅ disputata sunt, deÅ teÅ ipsoÅ

dõÅcam quid sentiam.

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5. Cum deÅ antõÅquõÅs loquaÅris, uÅtere antõÅqua lõÅbertaÅte, aÅ quaÅ vel magis deÅgeneraÅvimus quam ab eÅloquentiaÅ.

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6. Ipse Pompeius, ab inimõÅcõÅs Caesaris incitaÅtus et quod neÅminem dõÅgnitaÅte secum exaequaÅrõÅ voleÅbat, toÅtum seÅ ab eÅius amõÅcitiaÅ

aÅverterat.

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7. VeÅrum tamen homineÅs, quamvõÅs in turbidõÅs reÅbus sint, sõÅ modo homineÅs sunt, interdum animõÅs relaxantur.

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Vocabulary

tum (adv.)

then

deÅnique (adv.)

®nally, at last

inter®cioÅ, inter®cere

kill

neÅmoÅ, neÅminis

nobody

improbus, -a, -um

base, depraved

perditus, -a, -um

ruined, desperate

similis, -e

similar ( gen.)

ideoÅ

for this reason

ef®cax, -aÅcis

effective

oÅraÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

speech

auris, auris, -ium, f.

ear

iuÅdicoÅ, iuÅdicaÅre

to judge

voluptaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

pleasure

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

pervenioÅ, pervenõÅre

arrive, come to

interitus, -uÅs, m.

death, destruction

auctor, -oÅris, m.

creator, producer

quidem

indeed

saluÅs, -uÅtis, f.

health, safety

lõÅbertaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

freedom

dõÅgnitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

dignity, prestige

consistoÅ, consistere

rest upon

aggredior, aggredõÅ, aggressus sum

approach

disputoÅ, disputaÅre

argue, dispute

antiquus, -a, -um

ancient, old

loquor, loquõÅ, locuÅtus sum

speak

uÅtor, uÅtõÅ, uÅsus sum ( abl.)

make use of

deÅgeneroÅ, deÅgeneraÅre

degenerate

eÅloquentia, -ae, f.

eloquence

Pompeius, -õÅ, m.

Pompeius

incitaÅtus, -a, -um

roused, incited

inimõÅcus, -a, -um

enemy

Caesar, -aris, m.

Caesar

exaequoÅ, exaequaÅre

make level or equal

amõÅcitia, -ae, f.

friendship

aÅvertoÅ, aÅvertere

turn away

veÅrum

but

turbidus, -a, -um

violently disturbed

modo (adv.)

at least, only

interdum (adv.)

sometimes

animus, -õÅ, m.

mind, spirit

relaxoÅ, relaxaÅre

relax

Purpose Clauses

Purpose clauses express the purpose or reason for an action. Like causal clauses, they answer the question ``why?''

They are introduced by the conjunction ut or, if negated, by the conjunction neÅ, and they take the subjunctive according to the rules of sequence.

MõÅliteÅs urbem vincent ut reÅx capiaÅtur. The soldiers will conquer the city in order that the king may be captured.

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

129

MõÅliteÅs urbe võÅceÅrunt neÅ reÅx fugeret.

The soldiers conquered the city in order

that the king might not ¯ee.

Indirect Commands

Indirect commands follow verbs of commanding, requesting, begging, etc. They express the content of the command or request and answer the question ``what,' i.e.,

` what did he command?''

They are introduced by the conjunction ut and negated with neÅ, and take the subjunctive according to the rules of sequence.

ReÅx imperat ut mõÅliteÅs urbem vincant. The king orders that the soldiers conquer the city.

ReÅx oÅraÅbat neÅ mõÅliteÅs urbem vincerent. The king was begging that the soldiers not conquer the city.

Result Clauses

Result clauses express the result of an action or state. They are introduced by ut and take the subjunctive according to the rules of sequence: Tam miser est ut claÅmet.

He is so wretched that he shouts.

Ita claÅmaÅvit ut pueri timeÅrent.

He shouted in such a way that the

children were afraid.

Usually the main clause before a result clause contains an intensifying word such as ita or tam that triggers the result.

Unlike purpose clauses and indirect commands, which also use the conjunction ut, result clauses do not use neÅ but are negated using noÅn inside the clause: Tam dulciter poeÅta caneÅbat ut

The poet sang so sweetly that we were

loquõÅ noÅn posseÅmus.

not able to speak.

A result clause may also be the subject or object of certain verbs: ReÅx effeÅcit ut lõÅbertaÅs deÅleÅreÅtur.

The king brought it about that liberty

was destroyed.

In this sentence the clause ut lõÅbertaÅs deÅleÅreÅtur is actually the direct object of the verb effeÅcit.

Accidit ut reÅx deÅmentissimus sit.

It happens that the king is extremely

insane.

In this sentence the clause ut reÅx deÅmentissimus sit is the subject of the verb accidit. In such cases the clause is called a substantive result clause, because the clause acts as a noun within its sentence.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

Fear Clauses

Fear clauses express fears. They use the conjunctions ut and neÅ but with reverse meanings from the clauses above. Ut expresses negative fears, and neÅ expresses positive fears.

TimeÅbaÅmus neÅ reÅx lõÅbertaÅtem deÅleÅreÅt. We were afraid that the king would destroy liberty.

TimeÅmus ut mõÅliteÅs veniant.

We are afraid that the soldiers are not

coming.

Sometimes a fear clause may begin with neÅ and then be negated with noÅn: TimeÅmus neÅ mõÅliteÅs noÅn veniant.

We are afraid that the soldiers are not

coming.

Clauses of Prevention

Certain verbs with meanings of prevention or hindrance take clauses of prevention.

They are introduced by the conjunction neÅ or quoÅminus and take the subjunctive according to the rules of sequence:

ReÅx mõÅliteÅs impedõÅvit quoÅminus

The king prevented the soldiers from

urbem caperent.

capturing the city.

If the main clause is negated, the prevention clause may be introduced by quõÅn: ReÅx noÅn impediet quõÅn mõÅliteÅs

The king will not prevent the soldiers

urbem capiant.

from capturing the city.

Clauses of Doubting

Doubt is expressed in two ways in Latin. If the expression of doubt is not negated, it will take the form of an indirect question (see p. 153). If the expression of doubt is negated, it takes a clause of doubting introduced by the conjunction quõÅn: NoÅn dubitoÅ quõÅn mõÅliteÅs urbem

I do not doubt that the soldiers captured

ceÅperint.

the city.

In this example the perfect subjunctive expresses time prior to that of the main verb in primary sequence.

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131

Clauses of Proviso

Clauses of proviso give a condition for the main clause. They take the subjunctive and are introduced by the following conjunctions:

dum

provided that

modo

provided that

dummodo

provided that

ReÅx populoÅ aurum doÅnaÅbit dummodoÅ The king will give money to the people mõÅliteÅs urbem capiant.

provided that the soldiers capture the

city.

Exercises

3. Translate the following. Then identify the type of subordinate clause in each sentence.

1. Populus timet neÅ avaÅritia reÅgis regnum deÅleat.

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2. PoeÅta timeÅbat neÅ avaÅritia regnum deÅleÅvisset.

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3. ReÅx poeÅtaÅs deÅterret quoÅminus libroÅs scrõÅbant.

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4. ReÅx mõÅliteÅs noÅn deÅterreÅbit quõÅn poeÅtaÅs inter®ciant.

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5. RoÅmaÅnõÅ noÅn dubitaÅbant quõÅn imperium esset maximum bonoÅrum.

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6. PoeÅta reÅgeÅm oÅraÅbant neÅ librõÅ deÅleÅrentur.

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7. ReÅx libroÅs noÅn deÅleÅbit modo mõÅliteÅs poeÅtaÅs inter®ciant.

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8. ReÅx poeÅtaÅs inter®cere vult ut populus esset librõÅs lõÅber.

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9. PoÅetae a reÅge sõÅc inter®cieÅbantur ut populus multum timeÅret.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

10. Tam magna erat avaÅritia reÅgis ut populus nunc sit populus servoÅrum.

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4. Translate the following sentences.

1. Erat tam deÅmeÅns is ut omnõÅs suaÅs fortuÅnaÅs alieÅnõÅs servõÅs commit-teret?

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2. Vincat aliquandoÅ cupiditaÅs voluptaÅsque ratioÅnem, dum modo illa praescriptioÅ moderatioÅque teneaÅtur.

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3. Sed iam, ut omnõÅ meÅ invidiaÅ lõÅberem, poÅnam in medioÅ sententiaÅs philosophoÅrum deÅ natuÅraÅ deoÅrum.

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4. Sed cum mihi, patreÅs conscriptõÅ, et proÅ meÅ aliquid et in AntoÅnium multa dõÅcenda sint, alterum petoÅ a voÅbõÅs, ut meÅ proÅ meÅ dõÅcentem benigneÅ, alterum ipse ef®ciam, ut contraÅ illum cum dõÅcam attenteÅ

audiaÅtis.

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5. Tu istõÅs faucibus, istõÅs lateribus, ista gladiaÅtoÅriaÅ toÅtõÅus corporis

®rmitaÅte tantum võÅnõÅ in Hippiae nuptiõÅs exhauseraÅs ut tibi necesse esset in populõÅ RoÅmaÅnõÅ conspectuÅ vomere postrõÅdieÅ.

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6. CuÅr aut tam familiaÅris fuistõÅ ut aurum commodaÅreÅs aut tam inimõÅca ut veneÅnum timeÅreÅs?

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133

7. An timeÅbant neÅ tot uÅnum, valenteÅs imbecillum, alaÅcreÅs perterritum superaÅre noÅn possent?

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8. Nec dubitaÅrõÅ deÅbet quõÅn fuerint ante HomeÅrum poeÅtae.

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9. Quam ob rem disceÅde atque hunc mihi timoÅrem eÅripe; si est veÅrus, neÅ

opprimar, sõÅn falsus, ut tandem aliquandoÅ timeÅre deÅsinam.

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Vocabulary

deÅmeÅns, -ntis

insane

fortuÅna, -ae, f.

fortune, wealth

alieÅnus, -a, -um

belonging to another person

committo, committere

entrust

vincoÅ, vincere

conquer

aliquandoÅ

sometimes

cupiditaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

desire

voluptaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

pleasure

ratioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

reasoning, rational thought

ille, illa, illud

(here) the following

praescriptioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

precept, rule

moderaÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

moderation, control

invidia, -ae, f.

ill will

lõÅberoÅ, lõÅberaÅre

free

sententia, -ae, f.

thought, opinion

philosophus, -õÅ, m.

philosopher

patreÅs conscriptõÅ

senators

AntoÅnius, -õÅ, m.

Antonius

alter, -tra, -trum

one (of two)

benigneÅ (adv.)

benevolently, in a friendly manner

ef®cioÅ, ef®cere

bring about, effect

attenteÅ (adv.)

attentively

fauceÅs, -ium, f. pl.

throat

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

latus, lateris, n.

side, ¯ank

gladiaÅtoÅrius, -a, -um

of a gladiator

®rmitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

strength

võÅnum, -õÅ, n.

wine

Hippia, -ae, f.

Hippia (a woman's name)

nuptiae, -aÅrum, f. pl.

wedding

exhaurioÅ, exhaurõÅre

drain, drink up

conspectus, -uÅs, m.

sight, view

vomoÅ, vomere

vomit

postrõÅdieÅ (adv.)

on the following day

cuÅr

why

aut . . . aut

either . . . or

familiaÅris, -e

friendly, intimate

commodoÅ, commodaÅre

lend

inimõÅcus, -a, -um

enemy, hostile

veneÅnum, -õÅ, n.

poison

tot (indeclinable)

so many (here, so many men)

valeÅns, -ntis

strong, powerful

imbeÅcillus, -a, -um

weak

alacer, -cris, -cre

swift

perterritus, -a, -um

thoroughly terri®ed

superoÅ, superaÅre

overcome

deÅbeoÅ, deÅbeÅre

owe, ought ( inf.)

quam ob rem

for which reason2

disceÅdo, disceÅdere

leave, depart

timor, -oÅris, m.

fear

veÅrus, -a, -um

true, real

opprimoÅ, opprimere

oppress

sõÅn

but if

falsus, -a, -um

false, unreal

eÅripioÅ, eÅripere

tear away, remove

tandem (adv.)

®nally, at last

aliquandoÅ

at some time, ever

timeoÅ, timeÅre

fear

deÅsinoÅ, deÅsinere

cease ( inf.)

2 Referring to something mentioned earlier.

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

135

Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences are composed of two clauses:

If he works, he is happy

`Ìf he works,' the subordinate clause, gives the condition for which the main clause will be true.

Latin grammars traditionally refer to thèìf' clause of a conditional sentence as the protasis and the main clause as the apodosis.

There are generally three kinds of conditional sentence: Simple conditions

Future conditions

Contrary-to-fact conditions

These categories differ according to the tense and mood of the verb they employ in the protasis and the apodosis.

The subordinating conjunction `ìf' in Latin is sõÅ. Its negative is nisõÅ. The main clause is negated normally, with noÅn.

SIMPLE CONDITIONS

Simple conditions take a present or past tense of the indicative in both the protasis and apodosis. They should be translated accordingly.

SõÅ laboÅrat, miser est.

If he works, he is wretched.

NisõÅ laboÅraÅbat, feÅlix erat.

If he was not working, he was happy.

FUTURE CONDITIONS

There are three kinds of future conditions. Future-more-vivid conditions take the future indicative in both the protasis and the apodosis.

SõÅ mõÅliteÅs urbem capient, poeÅtae canent.

For convenience in English, the future indicative in thèìf' clausèìf the soldiers will capture'' is usually translated as a present:

If the soldiers capture the city, the poets will sing.

Sometimes in this type of condition the future perfect is used instead of the ordinary future indicative:

SõÅ mõÅliteÅs urbem ceÅperint, poeÅtae canent.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

Although in Latin this is felt to be more emphatic,3 the English translation remains the same:

If the soldiers capture the city, the poets will sing.

Future-less-vivid conditions take the present subjunctive in both the protasis and the apodosis. In Latin these sentences are felt to imagine the situation less de®nitely or ``vividly'' than thè`more vivid'' examples.

SõÅ mõÅliteÅs urbem capiant, poeÅtae canant.

Often these sentences are translated using ``should'' for thèìf' clause and

` would'' for the main clause:

If the soldiers should capture the city, the poets would sing.

ReÅgõÅna miser sit nisõÅ poeÅta canat.

The queen would be miserable if the

poet should not sing.

Occasionally a sentence will take the future indicative in one clause and the present subjunctive in the other. Such sentences are known as mixed future conditions.

CONTRARY-TO-FACT CONDITIONS

Contrary-to-fact conditions refer to something unreal. (They are sometimes known as unreal conditions.) There are three kinds.

Present contrary-to-fact conditions refer to what is unreal in present time. They take the imperfect subjunctive in both the protasis and the apodosis: SõÅ mõÅliteÅs urbem caperent,

If the soldiers were capturing the city,

poeÅtae canerent.

the poets would be singing.

We know from both the Latin and the English translation that these things are not happening now.

If the protasis is negated, it is happening:

NisõÅ ad mare ambulaÅrem, laboÅraÅrem.

If I were not walking to the sea, I would

be working.

From this it is clear that I am walking to the sea and therefore that I am not working.

Past contrary-to-fact conditions refer to what is unreal in past time. They take the pluperfect subjunctive in both the protasis and the apodosis: SõÅ mõÅliteÅs urbem ceÅpissent,

If the soldiers had captured the city, the

poeÅtae cecinissent.

poets would have sung.

3 Some grammars refer to this type as future most vivid or future more vivid with emphatic protasis.

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

137

We know from both the Latin and the English translation that these things did not happen then in the past.

LaboÅraÅvisseÅmus nisõÅ ad mare

We would have worked if we had not

ambulaÅvisseÅmus.

walked to the sea.

Mixed contrary-to-fact conditions refer to something that is unreal in the present because of something unreal in the past. They take the pluperfect subjunctive in thèìf' clause and the imperfect subjunctive in the main clause: SõÅ mõÅliteÅs urbem ceÅpissent, poeÅta

If the soldiers had captured the city, the

canerent.

poets would be singing.

We know from both the Latin and the English translation that the soldiers did not capture the city in the past and that therefore the poets are not singing now.

Exercises

5. Translate the following conditional sentences. Then identify what type they are.

1. SõÅ reÅx deÅmeÅns regnum deÅleÅbit, poeÅtae RoÅmam fugient.

______________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________

2. NisõÅ reÅx deÅmeÅns regnum deÅleÅvisset, poeÅtae RoÅmam noÅn fuÅgissent.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3. NisõÅ fõÅlius ®dem servet, pater sit miserrimus.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. NisõÅ fõÅlius ®dem servaÅret, pater esset miserrimus.

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______________________________________________________

5. Nisi illoÅ tempore fõÅlius ®dem servaÅvisset, pater nunc esset miserrimus.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. SõÅ in urbe multõÅ poeÅta ambulant, et reÅgõÅnae et populoÅ paÅcem doÅnant.

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______________________________________________________

7. SõÅ reÅx poeÅtaÅs inter®ciat, populus timeat.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

8. SõÅ reÅx deÅmeÅns poeÅtaÅs interfeÅcerit, populus multum timeÅbit.

______________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________

9. SõÅ aÅ reÅge deÅmentõÅ poeÅta magnus interfectus esset, paÅcem reÅgõÅna deÅleÅvisset.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

10. SõÅ poeÅta magnus a reÅge inter®cieÅtur, reÅgõÅna paÅcem deÅleÅbit.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. Translate the following sentences.

1. Memoriam quoque ipsam cum voÅce perdidisseÅmus sõÅ tam in nostraÅ

potestaÅte esset oblõÅvõÅscõÅ quan taceÅre.

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_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. Multa ioca solent esse in epistulõÅs quae, proÅlata sõÅ sint, inepta videantur.

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_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. SõÅ teÅ parenteÅs timeÅrent neque eoÅs ulla ratioÅne plaÅcaÅre posseÅs, ab eoÅrum oculõÅs aliquoÅ conceÅdereÅs.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. Quod sõÅ invenõÅreÅtur aliqua cõÅvitaÅs in quaÅ neÅmoÅ peccaÅret, supervacuus esset inter innocenteÅs oÅraÅtor sõÅcut inter saÅnoÅs medicus.

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_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

5. Sed quid oppoÅnaÅs tandem sõÅ negem meÅ umquam ad teÅ istaÅs litteraÅs mõÅsisse?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

6. DieÅs iam meÅ deÅ®ciat sõÅ quae dõÅcõÅ in eam sententiam possunt coÅner exproÅmere.

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139

Vocabulary

memoria, -ae, f.

memory

quoque

also, in the same way

vox, voÅcis, f.

voice

perdoÅ, perdere, perdidõÅ, perditus

lose, destroy

oblõÅvõÅscor, oblõÅvõÅscõÅ, oblõÅtus sum

forget

taceoÅ, taceÅre

be silent

iocum, õÅ, n.

joke

epistula, -ae, f.

letter

proÅferoÅ

bring forward, expose

video

(in passive) seem

ineptus, -a, -um

foolish

pareÅns, parentis, m.=f.

parent

ratioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

reasoning, way

plaÅcoÅ, plaÅcaÅre

please

oculus, -õÅ, m.

eye

aliquoÅ (adv.)

to some other place

conceÅdoÅ, conceÅdere

withdraw

quod sõÅ

but if

invenioÅ, invenõÅre

to ®nd

cõÅvitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

citizenry, state

neÅmoÅ, neÅminis

nobody

peccoÅ, peccaÅre

commit an offense, sin

supervacuus, -a, -um

completely unnecessary

innoceÅns, -ntis

innocent

oÅraÅtor, -oÅris, m.

orator, lawyer

sõÅcut

just as

saÅnus, -a, -um

healthy, well

medicus, -õÅ, m.

doctor

oppoÅnoÅ, oppoÅnere

oppose, say in opposition

tandem (adv.)

really, after all

negoÅ, negaÅre

deny

umquam (adv.)

ever

litterae, -aÅrum, f. pl.

letter

mittoÅ, mittere, mõÅsõÅ, missus

send

deÅ®cioÅ, deÅ®cere

be lacking, run out

sententia, -ae, f.

thought, opinion

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coÅnor, coÅnaÅrõÅ, coÅnaÅtus sum

try, attempt ( inf.)

exproÅmoÅ, exproÅmere

bring out, reveal, express

Relative Clauses with the Subjunctive

Ordinary relative clauses that take the indicative provide factual information about their antecedent. There are, however, a variety of relative clauses that take the subjunctive to express more complex meanings.

RELATIVE CLAUSE OF CHARACTERISTIC

A relative clause of characteristic gives generalizing or de®ning information about its antecedent.

Is est quõÅ mortem timeat.

He is (the sort of person) who fears

death.

This does not mean merely that he fears death, but that his fear of death is a natural part or result of his character.

AmoÅ nihil quod puerõÅs noceat.

I love nothing (of the sort) which harms

children.

Relative clauses of characteristic are often found with such general expressions as Is est quõÅ

He is (the sort) who

Sunt quõÅ

There are those (of the sort) who

NemoÅ est quõÅ

There is no one (of the sort) who

Nihil est quod

There is nothing (of the sort) which

However, they may just as often have speci®c antecedents: Cicero erat quõÅ litteraÅs amaÅret.

Cicero was (the sort of person) who

loved letters.

Other relative clauses that take the subjunctive correspond more closely to some of the subordinate clauses described above.

RELATIVE CLAUSE OF PURPOSE

A relative clause with the subjunctive, often after a verb of motion or action, can express purpose:

ReÅx ad urbem mõÅliteÅs mittet quõÅ

The king will send soldiers to the city in

poeÅtaÅs inter®ciant.

order that they may kill the poets.

It is easier to translate these simply as purpose clauses.

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Sometimes, if a place is indicated, the adverb ubi may be used as the relative: ReÅx ad urbem mõÅliteÅs mittet ubi

The king will send soldiers to the city in

poeÅtaÅs inter®ciant.

order that there they may kill the

poets.

Ubi is a relative adverb.

Sometimes a relative clause of purpose will be introduced by quoÅ and contain a comparative adverb:

ReÅx urbem capiet quoÅ facilius poeÅtaÅs

The king will capture the city in order

inter®ciat.

that by this4 he may kill the poets

more easily.

RELATIVE CLAUSE OF RESULT

A relative clause with the subjunctive, often with an intensi®er, can express result: ReÅx erat tam deÅmeÅns quõÅ urbem

The king was so insane that he destroyed

deÅleÅret.

the city.

It is easier to translate these simply as result clauses.

RELATIVE CLAUSE OF CAUSE

A relative clause with the subjunctive can express cause. Sometimes (but not always) the relative pronoun will be preceded by ut, utpote, or quippe.

ReÅx quippe quõÅ deÅmeÅns esset urbem

The king, because he was insane,

deÅleÅvit.

destroyed the city.

CiceroÅ ut quõÅ litteraÅs amaÅret

Cicero, in as much as he loved letters,

lõÅbertaÅtem populõÅ deÅfendõÅt.

defended the liberty of the people.

Exercises

7. Translate the following sentences.

1. Ad urbem veÅneÅrunt poeÅtae quõÅ libroÅs scrõÅberent.

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_______________________________________________________

2. Tam caecõÅ erant poeÅtae quõÅ perõÅculum noÅn videÅrent.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. Sunt quõÅ pecuÅniam pluÅs quam libertaÅtem ament.

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_______________________________________________________

4 The antecedent of quoÅ here is the whole action of the main clause, i.e., the capturing of the city ` by which'' the main clause may be accomplished.

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4. ReÅx ut quõÅ pecuÅniam pluÅs quam lõÅbertaÅtem amaÅret bellum paraÅbat.

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_______________________________________________________

5. MõÅliteÅs peteÅbant id quod amaÅrent pluÅs quam pecuÅniam.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

8. Translate the following sentences.

1. Quid est quod tuÅ noÅn audeaÅs?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. Tum deÅnique inter®cieÅre cum iam neÅmoÅ tam improbus, tam perditus, tam tui similis invenõÅrõÅ poterit quõÅ id noÅn iure factum esse fateaÅtur.

Quamdiu quisquam erit quõÅ deÅfendere audeat, võÅves.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. Quid est enim, CatilõÅna, quod teÅ iam in haÅc urbe deÅlectaÅre possit, in quaÅ neÅmoÅ est, extra istam coniuÅraÅtioÅnem perditoÅrum hominum quõÅ teÅ

noÅn metuat, neÅmo quõÅ noÅn oÅderit?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. Mittitur DeÅcidius cum paucõÅs quõÅ locõÅ naÅtuÅram perspiciat.

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_______________________________________________________

5. Accipite nunc, quaesoÅ, noÅn ea quae ipse in seÅ atque in domesticum decus impuÅreÅ et intemperanter, sed quae in noÅs fortuÅnaÅsque, id est in uÅniversam rem puÅblicam, impieÅ ac nefaÅrieÅ feÅcerit.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

6. Quid enim meÅ interpoÅnerem audaÅciae tuae quam neque auctoÅritaÅs huius ordinis neque existimaÅtioÅ populõÅ RoÅmaÅnõÅ neque leÅgeÅs ullae possent coerceÅre?

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

143

_______________________________________________________

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Vocabulary

audeoÅ, audeÅre, ausum sum

dare

deÅnique (adv.)

®nally

inter®cioÅ, inter®cere

kill

neÅmoÅ, neÅminis

nobody

improbus, -a, -um

base, depraved

similis, -e

similar

invenioÅ, invenõÅre

®nd

iuÅre

rightly

fateor, fateÅrõÅ, fassus sum

confess

quamdiuÅ (adv.)

as long as

deÅfendoÅ, deÅfendere

defend

võÅvoÅ, võÅvere

live

enim

indeed

CatilõÅna, -ae, m.

Catiline

deÅlectoÅ, deÅlectaÅre

please, delight

coniuÅraÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

conspiracy

metuoÅ, metuere

fear

oÅdõÅ, oÅdisse

hate

DeÅcidius, -õÅ, m.

Decidius

paucõÅ, -ae, -a

few

locus, -õÅ, m.

place

naÅtuÅra, -ae, f.

nature

perspicioÅ, perspicere

look over, inspect

accipioÅ, accipere

receive, hear

quaesoÅ

please

domesticus, -a, -um

domestic, private

decus, decoris, n.

honor

impuÅreÅ (adv.)

impurely, basely

intemperanter (adv.)

intemperately

uÅniversis, -a, -um

whole, entire

impieÅ (adv.)

impiously

nefaÅrieÅ (adv.)

monstrously

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

quid

(here) why?

interpoÅnoÅ, interpoÅnere

place as an obstacle, interpose

audaÅcia, -ae, f.

audacity

auctoÅritaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

authority

ordoÅ, ordinis

order, body of men

existimaÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

judgment, opinion

lex, leÅgis, f.

law

coerceoÅ, coerceÅre

restrain, con®ne

Participles Revisited

Participles, as stated before, are verbal adjectives. As such, they modify nouns.

MõÅliteÅs canenteÅs templum deÅleÅveÅrunt. The singing soldiers destroyed the temple.

Here the participle functions simply as an adjective, giving us information about the soldiers.

We could also translate this participle more as an adverb, telling us something about how the soldiers performed the action of the main verb: Singing, the soldiers destroyed the temple.

Although the example above is quite simple, participles can often extend this more adverbial usage to do the work of entire subordinate clauses. For example, they may have temporal force, simply correlating their action in time with the main verb:

MõÅliteÅs urbem capienteÅs templum

When they were capturing the city, they

deÅleÅverunt.

destroyed the temple.

They may have causal force, explaining the action of the main verb: MõÅliteÅs urbem capienteÅs gaudeÅbant.

Because they were capturing the city, the

soldiers were happy.

The presence of the word tamen may show that a participle is being used concessively:

MõÅliteÅs urbem capienteÅs templum

Although they were capturing the city,

tamen noÅn deÅleÅveÅrunt.

nevertheless the soldiers did not

destroy the temple.

A participle can act as the protasis of a conditional sentence. When it does, the main verb will indicate what type of conditional sentence it is.

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

145

MõÅliteÅs urbem capienteÅs templum

If the soldiers capture the city, they will

deÅleÅbunt.

destroy the temple.

The future indicative deÅleÅbunt indicates a future-more-vivid conditional sentence.

MõÅliteÅs urbem capienteÅs templum

If the soldiers were capturing the city,

deÅleÅrent.

they would be destroying the temple.

The imperfect subjunctive deÅleÅrent indicates a present contrary-to-fact conditional sentence.

Urbs capta deÅleÅta esset.

If it had been captured, the city would

have been destroyed.

The pluperfect subjunctive deÅleÅta esset indicates a past contrary-to-fact conditional sentence.

Although in an isolated sentence like this such different possibilities may seem arbitrary, the actual context of written Latin will make it easier to see how best to translate such hard-working participles.

Exercise

9. Translate the following using as many of the above senses of the participle as is reasonably possible.

1. PoÅetae canentõÅ pecuÅniam reÅx doÅnaÅbit.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. PoÅetae canentõÅ reÅx tamen pecuÅniam noÅn dedit.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. PoeÅtae canentõÅ reÅx pecuÅniam doÅnaÅret.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. PoeÅtõÅs aÅ mõÅlitibus captõÅs reÅx pecuÅniam noÅn dedisset.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

5. ReÅx poeÅtõÅs a mõÅlitibus captõÅs pecuÅniam daÅns aÅ reÅgõÅnaÅ ameÅtur.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Ablative Absolute

A participle together with the noun it modi®es, both in the ablative case, form a construction known as the ablative absolute. Together they represent another set of circumstances that accompanies the main clause in the sentence.

MõÅlitibus urbem capientibus reÅx

With the soldiers capturing the city, the

timeÅbat.

king was afraid.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

Although it lacks a subordinating conjunction, the ablative absolute is like a subordinate clause in that it cannot stand on its own. However, its subject must be different from that of the main clause.5

LitterõÅs recitaÅtõÅs reÅx gemuit.

With the letter having been read, the

king groaned.

Like other participles, the participle in an ablative absolute may have different meanings based on context:

Because the letter had been read, the king groaned.

When the letter had been read, the king groaned.

Although the letter had been read, the king groaned.

Relative time applies. Whatever the force of recitaÅtõÅs, its perfect tense shows time prior to that of the main verb gemuit.

ReÅge moriente,6 reÅgõÅna tamen

Although the king was dying, the queen

disceÅssit.

departed.

The present participle shows time simultaneous with the perfect disceÅssit. Tamen indicates that the ablative absolute should be translated as a concessive clause.

PoeÅtõÅs interfectõÅs reÅx tamen timeÅbat.

Although the poets had been killed,

nevertheless, the king was afraid.

The perfect participle shows time prior to the main verb.

An ablative absolute can function as the protasis of a conditional sentence: MõÅlitibus captõÅs, reÅx noÅn timuisset.

If the soldiers had been captured, the

king would not have been afraid.

The pluperfect subjunctive timuisset indicates that the sentence is a past contrary-to-fact conditional sentence.

Sometimes an ablative absolute will not contain a participle, but another noun or adjective in the ablative that acts as a predicate: PoeÅtaÅ reÅge feÅlix erit reÅgõÅna.

If the poet is king, the queen will be

happy.

Here reÅge is predicate to the subject. The verb sum, ` to be,' has no participle that could be used here, but the sense may be supplied.

Exercises

10. Translate the following.

1. ServõÅs fugientibus, mõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleÅveÅrunt.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5 Àbsolute'' in this sense means free from connection to the main clause.

6 When the singular of the present participle is used in an ablative absolute, it takes the ending -eÅ instead of -õÅ.

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147

2. ServõÅs fugientibus, mõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleÅbunt.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3. ServõÅs fugientibus mõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleÅrent.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. Urbe aÅ mõÅlitibus deÅleÅtaÅ imperaÅtor claÅmaÅvit seÅ esse reÅgem.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. Urbe aÅ mõÅlitibus deÅleÅtaÅ imperaÅtor seÅ esse reÅgem claÅmaÅvisset.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. Urbe aÅ mõÅlitibus deÅleÅtaÅ imperaÅtor seÅ esse reÅgem claÅmaÅbit.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

7. ImperaÅtoÅre seÅ esse reÅgem claÅmante servõÅ ex urbe fugieÅbant.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

8. ImperaÅtoÅre reÅge servõÅ multum timeÅbunt.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

9. ImperaÅtoÅre reÅge servõÅ multum timuissent.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

10. ImperaÅtoÅre seÅ esse reÅgem urbis claÅmante mõÅliteÅs tamen discesseÅrunt.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

11. Translate the following sentences.

1. Itaque vastaÅtõÅs omnibus eoÅrum agrõÅs, võÅcõÅs aedi®ciõÅsque inceÅnsõÅs, Caesar exercitum reduÅxit et in hõÅherniõÅs collocaÅvit.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. ExiguaÅ parte aestaÅtis reliquaÅ Caesar tamen in Britanniam pro®cõÅscõÅ

contendit.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. Et sõÅcut vetus aetaÅs võÅdit quid ultimum in libertaÅte esset, ita noÅs quid in servituÅte, ademptoÅ per inquõÅsõÅtioÅneÅs etiam loquendõÅ audiendõÅque commercioÅ.

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_______________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Vocabulary

itaque (adv.)

and so

vastoÅ, vastaÅre

lay waste, destroy

agrum, -õÅ, n.

®eld

võÅcus, -õÅ, m.

village

aedi®cium, -õÅ, n.

building

incendoÅ, incendere

burn

Caesar, Caesaris, m.

Caesar

exercitus, -uÅs, m.

army

reduÅcoÅ, reduÅcere

lead back

hõÅberna, -oÅrum, n. pl.

winter camp

collocoÅ, collocaÅre

put in place, settle, locate

exiguus, -a, -um

small

aestaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

summer

relõÅquus, -a, -um

remaining, left over

Britannia, -ae, f.

Britain

pro®cõÅscor, pro®cõÅscõÅ, profectus sum

set forth

contendoÅ, contendere

make an effort, hurry

vetus, veteris

old

aetaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

time, age

ultimus, -a, -um

furthest, most extreme

lõÅbertaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

liberty

servitus, -tuÅtis, f.

slavery

adimoÅ, adimere, adeÅmõÅ, ademptus

remove, take away

inquõÅsõÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

trial

loquor, loquõÅ, locuÅtus sum

speak

commercium, -õÅ, n.

exchange, commerce

Indirect Statement

An indirect statement is the reporting of another statement, originally ``direct.'

Direct:

The poets are working in the ®eld.

Indirect:

He says that the poets are working in the ®eld.

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149

English uses the conjunction ``that'' to make a subordinate clause of the original direct statement.

Latin does not express indirect statement by subordinate clause. Instead, it uses a subject accusative and in®nitive construction. That is, the subject of the statement given in indirect form will be put into the accusative case and the verb in the in®nitive:

DõÅcit poeÅtaÅs in agroÅ laboÅraÅre.

He says that the poets are working in the

®eld.

The English word ``that'' must be supplied in the translation, though the Latin does not have it.

Any word signifying thought, speech, feeling, rumor, etc. can initiate an indirect statement:

RuÅmor erat poeÅtaÅs in agroÅ

There was a rumor that the poets were

laboÅraÅre.

working in the ®eld.

Remember that, like participles, in®nitives in Latin show only three tenses: present, perfect, and future. Also like participles, in®nitives in an indirect statement must be translated according to the rules of relative time.

The present in®nitive shows time simultaneous with that of the main verb: DõÅceÅbat poeÅtaÅs in agroÅ laboÅraÅre.

He said that the poets were working in

the ®eld.

Here the present in®nitive laboÅraÅre shows time simultaneous with the main verb dõÅceÅbat in the imperfect tense and so is translated ` were working.'

DõÅcet poeÅtaÅs in agroÅ laboÅraÅre.

He will say that the poets are working.7

The perfect in®nitive shows time prior to that of the main verb: DõÅcit poeÅtaÅs in agroÅ laboÅraÅvisse.

He says that the poets worked in the

®eld.

DõÅceÅbat poeÅtaÅs in agroÅ laboÅraÅvisse.

He said that the poets had worked in the

®elds.

DõÅcet poeÅtaÅs in agroÅ laboÅraÅvisse.

He will say that the poets have worked in

the ®elds.

The future in®nitive shows time subsequent to that of the main verb: DõÅcit poeÅtaÅs in agroÅ laboÅraÅtuÅroÅs esse.

He says that the poets will work in the

®eld.

DõÅceÅbat poeÅtaÅs in agroÅ laboÅraÅtuÅroÅs

He said that the poets would work in the

esse.

®eld.

DõÅcet poeÅtaÅs in agroÅ laboÅraÅtuÅroÅs esse.

He will say that the poets will work in

the ®eld.

7 Here the English says `àre working.' It means they will be working at the same time as he says it.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

Note that the form of the future in®nitive laboÅraÅtuÅroÅs esse must agree in gender, number, and case with the subject accusative poeÅtaÅs, which is masculine accusative plural.

A subject of different gender and number would require a different form: DõÅcit feÅminaÅm in agroÅ laboÅraÅtuÅram

He says that the woman will work in the

esse.

®eld.

Here laboÅraÅtuÅram agrees with the feminine noun feÅminam.

This consideration also applies to the perfect passive in®nitive: DõÅcit urbem captam esse.

He says that the city was captured.

Here captam must agree with the feminine urbem.

Exercises

12. Translate the following. Pay particular attention to the relative time of the in®nitive and the main verb.

1. PutaÅmus reÅgõÅnam esse miseram.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

2. PutaÅmus reÅgõÅnam miseram fuisse.

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______________________________________________________

3. PutaÅmus reÅgõÅnam cum noÅbõÅs noÅn locuÅtuÅram esse.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. Putat maÅtreÅs mõÅlitum mortuoÅrum ad mare ambulaÅre.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. PutaÅbat maÅtreÅs mõÅlitum mortuoÅrum ad mare ambulaÅvisse.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. RuÅmor est maÅtreÅs mõÅlitum mortuoÅrum ad mare ambulaÅtuÅraÅs esse.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

7. RuÅmor erat matreÅs mõÅlitum mortuoÅrum ad mare ambulaÅtuÅraÅs esse.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

8. DõÅcit animaÅlia aÅ puerõÅs spectaÅrõÅ.

______________________________________________________

9. DõÅcit animaÅlia aÅ puerõÅs spectaÅta esse.

______________________________________________________

10. DõÅxit animaÅlia a pueÅrõÅs spectaÅrõÅ.

______________________________________________________

11. DõÅxit animaÅlia a pueÅrõÅs spectaÅtaÅ esse.

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12. DõÅxit pueroÅs animaÅlia spectatuÅros esse.

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13. DõÅxit animaÅlia pueroÅs spectatuÅra esse.

______________________________________________________

14. NeÅmoÅ creÅdit reÅgem poeÅtaÅs interfectuÅrum esse.

______________________________________________________

15. Quis creÅdat reÅgem poÅetaÅs interfeÅcisse?

______________________________________________________

13. Translate the following sentences.

1. CreÅdibile est igitur tantum facinus nullam ob causam esse commis-sum?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. Iam intelligeÅs multoÅ meÅ vigilaÅre aÅcrius ad saluÅtem quam teÅ ad perniciem reõÅ puÅblicae.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. DoleÅbam, doleÅbam, patreÅs conscriptõÅ, rem puÅblicam vestrõÅs quondam meõÅsque coÅnsiliõÅs conservaÅtam brevõÅ tempore esse perituÅram.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. Sunt enim philosophõÅ et fueÅrunt quõÅ omnõÅnoÅ nullam habeÅre censeÅrent reÅrum huÅmanaÅrum proÅcuÅraÅtioÅnem deoÅs. QuoÅrum sõÅ veÅra sententia est, quae potest esse pietaÅs, quae sanctitaÅs, quae religioÅ?. . . Sunt autem aliõÅ philosophõÅ, et hõÅ quidem magnõÅ atque noÅbileÅs, quõÅ deoÅrum mente atque ratioÅne omnem mundum administraÅrõÅ et reÅgõÅ censeant. . .

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

5. Homo disertus noÅn intelligit eum quem contraÅ dõÅcit laudaÅrõÅ aÅ seÅ; eoÅs apud quoÅs dõÅcit vituperaÅrõÅ.

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Vocabulary

creÅdibilis, -e

believable

igitur (adv.)

therefore, then

facinus, facinoris, n.

crime

committoÅ, committere

commit

intelligoÅ, intelligere

understand, discern

vigiloÅ, vigilaÅre

keep watch, stay awake

aÅcer, -cris, -cre

sharp, keen

saluÅs, -uÅtis, f.

health, safety

pernicieÅs, -eÅõÅ, f.

destruction, ruin

doleoÅ, doleÅre

grieve, be in pain

patreÅs conscriptõÅ

senators

coÅnsilium, -õÅ, n.

advice, planning

quondam (adv.)

at some time in the past, formerly

conservoÅ, conservaÅre

save, preserve

brevis, -e

brief, short

pereoÅ, perõÅre, periõÅ, perituÅrus8

perish, die

enim

for

philosophus, -õÅ, m.

philosopher

omnõÅnoÅ (adv.)

entirely

ceÅnseoÅ, ceÅnseÅre

judge

huÅmaÅnus, -a, -um

of humans

proÅcuÅraÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

concern, care, responsibility

veÅrus, -a, -um

true

sententia, -ae, f.

opinion, thought

pietaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

devotion, loyalty

sanctitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

moral purity, sanctity

religioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

religion

autem

moreover

quidem

indeed

noÅbilis, -e

noble

raÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

reason, reckoning

mundus, -õÅ, m.

world

administroÅ, administraÅre

conduct, manage, administer

regoÅ, regere

rule

8 The fourth principal part given here is the future active participle.

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

153

disertus, -a, -um

learned, clever

intelligoÅ, intelligere

understand

laudoÅ, laudaÅre

praise

vituperoÅ, vituperaÅre

criticize

Indirect Question

Questions in Latin are often introduced by interrogative words or expressions such as the following:

quis, quid

who, what

quoÅ modoÅ

how

quam ob rem

why

cuÅr

why

quandoÅ

when

ubi

where

unde

from where

CuÅr claÅmaÅvit?

Why did he shout?

Unde venis?

Where are you coming from?

An indirect question, as the name suggests, is a question reported in indirect form. Latin expresses indirect questions as subordinate clauses. The interrogative word of the original question acts as a subordinating conjunction, and the verb of the original direct question goes into the subjunctive according to the rules of sequence.

Quis hoc dõÅcit?

Who says this?

Rogat quis hoc dõÅcat.

He asks who says this.

The original direct question is now subordinated to the main verb rogat.

The present subjunctive expresses time simultaneous with the main verb in primary sequence. (It stands for an original present indicative.) Rogat quis hoc dõÅxerit.

He asks who said that.

The perfect subjunctive expresses time prior to the main verb in secondary sequence.

Because there is no future subjunctive, to express time subsequent to the main verb in an indirect question, Latin uses the subjunctive of the active periphrastic (see p. 63).

Rogat quis hoc dictuÅrus sit.

He asks who is going to (will) say this.

Here the present subjunctive of the active periphrastic is used in primary sequence.

In secondary sequence, the imperfect subjunctive expresses time simultaneous with the main verb:

RogaÅvit quis hoc dõÅceret.

He asked who was saying this.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

The pluperfect subjunctive expresses time prior to that of the main verb: RogaÅvit quis hoc dõÅxisset.

He asked who had said this.

To express time subsequent to the main verb in secondary sequence, the imperfect subjunctive of the active periphrastic is used: RogaÅvit quis hoc dictuÅrus esset.

He asked who was going to say this.

Direct questions may not always be introduced by an interrogative word: LaboÅrat?

Does he work?

In such cases Latin may use the word utrum or the interrogative enclitic -ne.

RogoÅ laboÅretne.

I ask whether he works.

RogoÅ utrum laboÅret.

Exercises

14. Translate the following.

1. MõÅraÅmur cuÅr claÅmeÅs.

______________________________________________________

2. MiraÅbaÅmur cuÅr claÅmaÅvisseÅtis.

______________________________________________________

3. NescioÅ cuÅr claÅmaÅverint.

______________________________________________________

4. ScõÅtis quibus reÅx aurum doÅnatuÅrus sit?

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. ScieÅbaÅtis cui reÅx aurum doÅnaÅtuÅrus esset.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. Mihi dõÅcere noÅluit quoÅ modoÅ mõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleÅvissent.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

7. NeÅmoÅ mihi dõÅcere potest quam ob rem urbs a mõÅlitibus deÅleaÅtur.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

8. DõÅc mihi aÅ quoÅ interfectus sit reÅx.

______________________________________________________

9. RogaÅvit cuÅr non amaÅreÅmur.

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10. Quis rogaÅvit cuÅr noÅn amaÅtõÅ esseÅmus?

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15. Translate the following sentences.

1. Ego quid ille et contraÅ ille quid ego sentõÅrem et spectaÅrem videÅbat.

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2. Ille quid ego et contraÅ ego quid ille sentõÅret et spectaÅret videÅbam.

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3. Quae fuit enim causa quam ob rem istõÅ mulierõÅ veneÅnum dare vellet Caelius?. . . Sed tamem veneÅnum unde fuerit, quem ad modum paraÅtum sit noÅn dõÅcitur.

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4. Itaque hodieÅ per®ciam ut intelligat quantum aÅ meÅ bene®cium tum acceÅperit.

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5. Et sõÅcut vetus aetaÅs võÅdit quid ultimum in libertaÅte esset, ita noÅs quid in servituÅte, ademptoÅ per inquõÅsõÅtioÅneÅs etiam loquendõÅ audiendõÅque commercioÅ.

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Vocabulary

contraÅ (adv.)

on the other side, on the other hand

sentioÅ, sentõÅre

feel, think

spectoÅ, spectaÅre

look at, watch for

iste, ista, istud

that (often with contempt)

mulier, mulieris, f.

woman

veneÅnum, -õÅ, n.

poison

unde

from where?

quem ad modum

in what manner?

itaque

and so, in this manner

hodieÅ (adv.)

today

per®cioÅ, per®cere

accomplish, effect

intelligoÅ, intelligere

understand

quantus, -a, -um

how great?

bene®cium, -õÅ, n.

bene®t, favor

tum

at that time

accipioÅ, accipere

receive, take, accept

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

vetus, veteris

old

aetaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

time, age

ultimus, -a, -um

furthest, most extreme

lõÅbertaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

liberty

servitus, -tuÅtis, f.

slavery

adimoÅ, adimere, adeÅmõÅ, ademptus

remove, take away

inquõÅsõÅtioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

trial

loquor, loquõÅ, locuÅtus sum

speak

commercium, -õÅ, n.

exchange, commerce

Exercise

16. (Advanced reading) Translate the following passage and do the exercise at the end.

In this opening passage from his speech Pro Caelio, Cicero comments on the unusual nature of a trial that is taking place on a public holiday, when the courts would normally be closed.

SõÅ quis, iuÅdiceÅs, forte nunc adsit ignaÅrus leÅgum, iuÅdicioÅrum, consueÅtuÅdinis nostrae, mireÅtur profectoÅ quae sit tanta atroÅcitaÅs huius causae quod dieÅbus festõÅs luÅdõÅsque puÅblicõÅs, omnibus forensibus negoÅtiõÅs intermissõÅs, uÅnum hoc iuÅdicium exerceaÅtur, nec dubitet quõÅn tantõÅ facinoris reus arguaÅtur ut eo neglectoÅ cõÅvitaÅs staÅre noÅn possit;

(The passage continues on p. 160.)

Vocabulary

iuÅdex, iuÅdicis, m.

judge

forte

perhaps

adsum, adesse

be present

ignaÅrus, -a, -um

ignorant, without knowledge

( gen.)

lex, leÅgis, f.

law

iuÅdicium, õÅ, n.

trial

consueÅtuÅdoÅ, -tuÅdinis, f.

habit, practice

mõÅror, mõÅraÅrõÅ, mõÅraÅtus sum

wonder

profectoÅ

undoubtedly

tantus, -a, -um

so great

atroÅcitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

terribleness

causa, -ae, f.

case

dieÅs festus

holiday

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157

luÅdus, õÅ, m.

game, entertainment

puÅblicus, -a, -um

public

forensis, -e

pertaining to the law courts

negoÅtium, -õÅ, n.

business

intermittoÅ, intermittere, intermõÅsõÅ, intermissus interrupt, suspend

exerceoÅ, exerceÅre

exercise, practice, conduct

facinus, facinoris, n.

crime

reus, -õÅ, m.

defendant

arguoÅ, arguere

accuse

neglegoÅ, neglegere, negleÅxõÅ, negleÅctus

neglect

cõÅvitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

citizenry, state

stoÅ, staÅre

stand

Exercise

1. Identify and explain the tense and mood of adsit.

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2. Identify and explain the tense and mood of mõÅreÅtur.

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3. Identify and explain the tense and mood of sit.

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4. Explain the case of dieÅbus festõÅs.

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5. What kind of construction is omnibus forensibus negoÅtiõÅs intermissõÅs?

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6. Identify and explain the tense and mood of arguaÅtur.

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7. Identify and explain the tense and mood of possit.

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Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Statement

The section above on indirect statement deals with the indirect expression of simple sentences consisting of one independent clause. Such a clause, in indirect form, puts its subject in the accusative case and its verb in the in®nitive.

When complex sentences are put into indirect statement, the main and subordinate clauses behave differently. The main clause, as explained above, takes the subject accusative and in®nitive construction. Subordinate clauses generally put their verbs into the subjunctive according to the rules of sequence and relative time.

Quamquam urbs deÅletur poeÅtae

Although the city is being destroyed,

tamen manent.

nevertheless the poets are remaining.

DõÅcit quamquam urbs deÅleaÅtur,

He says that although the city is being

poeÅtas tamen maneÅre.

destroyed, nevertheless the poets are

remaining.

The present subjunctive stands for an original present indicative in primary sequence, expressing time simultaneous with the main verb.

Sometimes the subject and in®nitive may enclose the subordinate clause: DõÅcit poeÅtaÅs quamquam urbs deÅleaÅtur maneÅre tamen.

In secondary sequence, only the subordinate clause is affected.

DõÅxit quamquam urbs deÅleÅreÅtur,

He said that although the city was being

poeÅtaÅs tamen maneÅre.

destroyed, nevertheless the poets were

remaining.

Now the imperfect subjunctive stands for the original present indicative in secondary sequence, expressing time simultaneous with the main verb.

All the considerations of relative time will apply in translation: DõÅxit quamquam urbs deÅleÅta esset,

He said that although the city had been

poeÅtas tamen maÅnsuÅroÅs esse.

destroyed, nevertheless the poets

would remain.

Here the pluperfect subjunctive deÅleÅta esset represents time prior to the main verb dõÅxit in a subordinate clause in indirect statement in secondary sequence. The future in®nitive represents time subsequent to that of the main verb.

Subordinate clauses that normally take the subjunctive, not surprisingly, will still take the subjunctive in indirect statement:

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Cum urbs deÅleaÅtur, poeÅtae fugient.

Because the city is being destroyed, the

poets will ¯ee.

DõÅcit cum urbs deÅleaÅtur, poeÅtas

He says that because the city is being

fugituÅroÅs esse.

destroyed, the poets will ¯ee.

Relative Clauses in Indirect Statement

Relative clauses in indirect statement also take the subjunctive: ReÅx quõÅ urbem deÅleÅvit deÅmeÅns est.

The king who destroyed the city is

insane.

DõÅcit reÅgem quõÅ urbem deÅleÅverit

He says that the king who destroyed the

deÅmentem esse.

city is insane.

Here the perfect subjunctive deÅleÅverit represents time prior to the main verb dõÅcit in a relative clause in indirect statement in primary sequence.

DõÅceÅbat reÅgem quõÅ urbem deÅleÅvisset

He said that the king who had destroyed

deÅmentem esse.

the town was mad.

Here the pluperfect subjunctive deÅleÅvisset represents time prior to the main verb dõÅceÅbat in a relative clause in indirect statement in secondary structure.

Sometimes, however, relative clauses inside an indirect statement will take the indicative. This usually means that the writer of the sentence is giving this information, adding it to the original direct statement: DõÅcit reÅgem quõÅ urbem deÅleÅvit

He says that the king who (I am actually

deÅmentem esse.

telling you) destroyed the city is mad.

Although this translation is somewhat exaggerated, it is meant to show the difference between the indicative and subjunctive. The indicative tells you that the relative clause has been inserted by the writer, or at least that he con®rms the truth of its contents.

Exercises

17. Translate the following sentences.

1. Quod deÅ lõÅbertaÅte claÅmant reÅx poeÅtaÅs inter®cit.

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2. ReÅgõÅna dõÅcit reÅgem quod deÅ lõÅbertaÅte claÅment poeÅtaÅs inter®cere.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

3. ReÅgõÅna dõÅceÅbat reÅgem quod deÅ lõÅbertaÅte claÅmaÅrent poeÅtaÅs inter®cere.

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4. ReÅgõÅna dõÅcit reÅgem quod deÅ lõÅbertaÅte claÅmaÅverint poeÅtaÅs interfeÅcisse.

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5. ReÅgõÅna dõÅcit reÅgem poeÅtaÅs quod deÅ lõÅbertaÅte claÅmaÅverint interfectuÅrum esse.

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6. ReÅgõÅna dõÅceÅbat reÅgem poeÅtaÅs quod deÅ lõÅbertaÅte claÅmaÅrent interfeÅcisse.

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7. ReÅgõÅna dõÅceÅbat reÅgem poeÅtaÅs quod deÅ lõÅbertaÅte claÅmaÅvissent interfectuÅrum esse.

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8. ReÅgõÅna dõÅceÅbat reÅgem quõÅ populum timeÅret poeÅtaÅs quod deÅ lõÅbertaÅte claÅmaÅvissent interfeÅcisse.

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9. ReÅgõÅna dõÅceÅbat reÅgem quõÅ populum timeÅret poeÅtaÅs quod deÅ lõÅbertaÅte claÅmaÅrent interfectuÅrum esse.

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18. (Advanced reading; continued from p. 156) Translate the following passage and do the exercise at the end.

IÅdem cum audiat esse leÅgem quae deÅ seÅditioÅsõÅs consceleraÅtõÅsque cõÅvibus quõÅ

armaÅtõÅ senaÅtum obseÅderint, magistraÅtibus vim attulerint, rem puÅblicam oppugnaÅverint, coÅtõÅdieÅ quaerõÅ iubeat, leÅgem noÅn improbet, crõÅmen quod verseÅtur in iudicioÅ requõÅrat; cum audiat nullum facinus, nullam audaÅciam, nullam vim in iuÅdicium vocaÅrõÅ, sed adulescentem illustrõÅ ingenioÅ, industriaÅ, graÅtiaÅ accuÅsaÅrõÅ ab eÅius fõÅlioÅ quem ipse in iuÅdicium et vocet et vocaÅverit, oppugnaÅrõÅ autem opibus meretrõÅcius, illõÅus pietaÅtem noÅn reprehendat, muliebrem libõÅdinem comprimendam putet, voÅs laboÅrioÅsos existimet, quibus otioÅsõÅs neÅ in commuÅnõÅ quidem oÅtioÅ liceat esse.

(This passage continues on p. 165.)

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Vocabulary

lex, leÅgis, f.

law

seÅditioÅsus, -a, -um

rebellious, treasonous

consceleraÅtus, -a, -um

criminal, wicked

cõÅvis, cõÅvis, -ium, m.

citizen

armaÅtus, -a, -um

armed

senaÅtus, -uÅs, m.

senate

obsideoÅ, obsideÅre, obseÅdõÅ, obsessus

besiege, occupy

magistraÅtus, -uÅs, m.

magistracy, holder of of®ce

võÅm afferre

in¯ict violence upon

oppugnoÅ, oppugnaÅre

attack

coÅtõÅdieÅ (adv.)

everyday, daily

quaeroÅ, quaerere

(here) hold a trial or inquiry

iubeoÅ, iubeÅre

command

improboÅ, improbaÅre

disapprove

crõÅmen, crõÅminis, n.

crime, criminal charge

versoÅ, versaÅre

handle

iuÅdicium, -õÅ, n.

trial

requõÅroÅ, requõÅrere

ask

facinus, facinoris, n.

crime

audaÅcia, -ae, f.

outrageous boldness

vocoÅ, vocaÅre

call

adulescens, -ntis, m.

young man

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illustris, -e

outstanding, illustrious

ingenium, -õÅ, n.

talent

industria, -ae, f.

diligence

graÅtia, -ae, f.

favor, in¯uence

accuÅsoÅ, accusaÅre

accuse

autem

moreover

ops, opis, f.

wealth, resources

meretrõÅcius, -a, -um

of a prostitute

pietaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

loyalty, devotion

reprehendoÅ, reprehendere

®nd fault with

muliebris, -e

pertaining to a women

libõÅdo, -inis, f.

lust

comprimoÅ, comprimere

suppress, check

putoÅ, putaÅre

think

laboÅrioÅsus, -a, -um

very hard-working

existimoÅ, existimaÅre

judge, reckon

oÅtioÅsus, -a, -um

at leisure, on vacation

neÅ. . .quidem

not even

commuÅnis, -e

belonging to all

oÅtium, -õÅ, n.

leisure

Exercise

1. Explain the case of leÅgem.

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2. Explain the tense and mood of obseÅderint.

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3. Explain the case of illustrõÅ ingenioÅ.

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4. Explain the tense and mood of vocet.

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Conditional Sentences in Indirect Statement

Conditional sentences generally follow the same rules as other complex sentences.

The protasis, since it is a subordinate clause, will put its verb into the subjunctive.

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The apodosis, since it is an independent clause, will take a subject accusative and in®nitive construction.

PoeÅta sõÅ laboÅrat feÅlix est.

If the poet works, he is happy.

DõÅcit poeÅtam sõÅ laboÅret feÅlõÅcem esse.

He says that if the poet works, he is

happy.

In this simple condition, the present subjunctive laboÅret represents the original present indicative of the protasis, and the present in®nitive esse the present indicative of the apodosis.

DõÅceÅbat poeÅtam sõÅ laboÅraÅret feÅlõÅcem

He said that if the poet worked, he was

esse.

happy.

In secondary sequence it is the imperfect subjunctive laboÅraÅret that represents the original present indicative.

Future conditional sentences show an interesting simpli®cation. Because of the limited choices of subjunctive and in®nitive to represent them, the more-vivid and less-vivid varieties (see pp. 135±136) become the same: SõÅ urbs deÅleÅbitur, poeÅtae maneÅbunt.

If the city is destroyed, the poets will

remain.

DõÅcit sõÅ urbs deÅlelaÅtur, poeÅtaÅs

He says that if the city is destroyed, the

mansuÅroÅs esse.

poets will remain.

In primary sequence the future indicative of the protasis is represented by the present subjunctive, and that of the apodosis by the future in®nitive.

SõÅ urbs deÅleaÅtur, poeÅtae maneant.

If the city should be destroyed, the poets

would remain.

DõÅcit sõÅ urbs deÅleaÅtur, poeÅtaÅs

He says that if the city should be

mansuÅroÅs esse.

destroyed, the poets would remain.

The present subjunctive of the protasis remains the same, and the present subjunctive of the apodosis is represented by the future in®nitive because there is really no other option.

In secondary sequence, the protasis will take the imperfect subjunctive: DõÅceÅbat sõÅ urbs deÅleÅreÅtur poeÅtaÅs

He said that if the city were destroyed,

mansuÅroÅs esse.

the poets would remain.

Contrary-to-fact conditions obey their own rule. The subjunctive of the protasis does not change at all, regardless of sequence; it remains the same. The subjunctive of the apodosis, for both past and present contrary-to-fact sentences, is represented by the future active participle with the perfect in®nitive of sum, that is, fuisse.

Present

NisõÅ urbs deÅleÅreÅtur, poeÅtae maneÅrent.

If the city were not being destroyed, the

poets would remain.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

DõÅcit nisõÅ urbs deÅleÅreÅtur, poeÅtaÅs

He says that if the city were not being

mansuÅroÅs fuisse.

destroyed, the poets would remain.

In secondary sequence this will remain the same:

DõÅceÅbat nisõÅ urbs deÅleÅreÅtur, poeÅtaÅ mansuÅroÅs fuisse.

Past

NisõÅ urbs deÅleÅta esset, poeÅtae

If the city had not been destroyed, the

mansissent.

poets would have remained.

DõÅcit nisõÅ urbs deÅleÅta esset, poeÅtas

He says that if the city had not been

mansuÅroÅs fuisse.

destroyed, the poets would have

remained.

As you can see, what distinguishes present from past contrary-to-fact conditions in indirect statement is only the tense of the subjunctive in the protasis.

Exercises

19. Translate the following sentences. Then identify what type of conditional sentence has been put into indirect statement.

1. DõÅcõÅt sõÅ bellum in proÅvinciaÅ geraÅtur, agricolaÅs fugere.

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2. DõÅcit sõÅ bellum in proÅvinciaÅ geraÅtur, agricolaÅs fugituÅroÅs esse.

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3. DõÅceÅbat sõÅ bellum in proÅvinciaÅ gerereÅtur, agricolaÅs fugituÅroÅs esse.

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4. DõÅcit sõÅ bellum in proÅvinciaÅ gerereÅtur, agricolaÅs fugituÅroÅs fuisse.

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5. DõÅcit sõÅ bellum in proÅvinciaÅ gestum esset, agricolaÅs fugituÅroÅs fuisse.

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6. DõÅceÅbat sõÅ bellum in proÅvinciaÅ gestum esset, agricolaÅs fugituÅroÅs fuisse.

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20. (Advanced reading) (continued from p. 160) Translate the following passage.

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Etenim sõÅ attendere dõÅligenter, existimaÅre veÅreÅ deÅ omnõÅ haÅc causaÅ volueritis, sõÅc constitueÅtis, iuÅdiceÅs, nec descensuÅrum quemquam ad hanc accuÅsatioÅnem fuisse cui utrum vellet liceÅret, nec, cum descensisset, quicquam habituÅrum speõÅ fuisse nisõÅ alicuius intoleraÅbilõÅ libõÅdine et nimis acerboÅ odioÅ nõÅtereÅtur.

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Vocabulary

etenim

and indeed

attendoÅ, attendere

pay attention to

dõÅligenter (adv.)

diligently

existimoÅ, existimaÅre

judge, reckon

veÅreÅ (adv.)

truly

causa, -ae, f.

case

constituoÅ, constituere

establish, decide

iuÅdex, iuÅdicis, m.

judge

descendoÅ, descendere, descendõÅ, descensus

descend, stoop to

quisquam, quicquam

anyone, anything

intoleraÅbilis, -e

unendurable, intolerable

libõÅdoÅ, -inis, f.

lust

nimis (adv.)

excessively, too much

odium, -õÅ, n.

hatred

nõÅtor, nõÅtõÅ, nõÅxus sum

rest on, rely upon ( abl.)

``Fore ut'' Clause

This is a subordinate clause introduced by fore, the future in®nitive of sum, and the subordinating conjunction ut.9 (Fore is actually an alternative and more commonly 9 This construction might also be considered a substantive clause of result acting as the subject of fore. See p. 129.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

used form for futuÅrum esse, which may also be used in these constructions. See p. 67.) This construction is used in two different cases.

Because, practically speaking, there is no future passive in®nitive in Latin, a future passive idea cannot be expressed in indirect statement with the normal subject accusative and in®nitive construction.

Urbs a mõÅlitibus reÅgis deÅleÅbitur.

The city will be destroyed by the

soldiers of the king.

In such cases Latin uses the fore ut (less frequently, futuÅrum esse ut) with the subjunctive;

DõÅcit fore ut urbs a mõÅlitibus reÅgis deÅleaÅtur.

Literally, this means, ``He says that it will be that the city is destroyed by the soldiers of the king.'

However, it is best to combine the elements in translation to convey the future passive idea:

He says that the city will be conquered by the soldiers of the king.

DõÅceÅbat fore ut urbs aÅ mõÅlitibus

He said that the city would be conquered

reÅgis deÅleÅreÅtur.

by the soldiers of the king.

Some Latin verbs lack a fourth principal part. Since the future active participle is formed from the fourth principal part, such verbs cannot form a future active in®nitive and, so, will use a fore ut clause to express future ideas in indirect statement.

For example:

He says that the soldiers will not be able to destroy the city.

The verb ``to be able'' is possum, posse, potuõÅ, . . .

Because this verbs lacks a fourth principal part, a fore ut construction must be used to express this idea.

DõÅcit fore ut mõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleÅre

He says that it will be that the soldiers

noÅn possint.

are unable to destroy the city.

He says that the soldiers will be unable to destroy the city.

DõÅxit fore ut mõÅliteÅs urbem deÅlere

He said that the soldiers would be

noÅn possent.

unable to destroy the city.

Exercise

21. Translate the following sentences.

1. ReÅgõÅna putat fore ut poeÅtae aÅ reÅge inter®ciantur.

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2. ReÅgõÅna putaÅbat fore ut poeÅtae aÅ reÅge inter®cerentur.

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3. ReÅgõÅna creÅdit fore ut illoÅ dieÅ cõÅveÅs reÅgem timeant.

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4. ReÅgõÅna creÅdeÅbat fore ut illoÅ dieÅ cõÅveÅs reÅgem timeÅrent.

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5. RuÅmor erat fore ut reÅx poeÅtaÅs quoÅs reÅgõÅna ceÅlaÅvisset inter®cere noÅn posset.

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Impersonal Verbs

Impersonal verbs are so called because they do not have personal subjects. They take a small variety of constructions.

VERBS OF EMOTIONAL DISTRESS

Some impersonal verbs express a variety of unpleasant emotions: piget, pigeÅre, piguit

to disgust

taedet, taedeÅre, taeduit

to weary

paenitet, paeniteÅre, paenituit

to cause repentance

pudet, pudeÅre, puduit

to shame

Such verbs put the person who feels the emotion in the accusative case.

PoeÅtam piget.

The poet is disgusted.

The cause of the emotion may be expressed as a neuter nominative singular pronoun:

Hoc poeÅtam piget.

This thing disgusts the poet.

The cause of the emotion may be expressed by the in®nitive: PoeÅtam piget võÅvere.

It disgusts the poet to live.

The cause of the emotion may be expressed in the genitive case: PoeÅtam taedet võÅtae.

Life wearies the poet.

The poet is weary of life.

ReÅgem avaÅritiae noÅn pudet.

Avarice does not shame the king.

The king is not ashamed of avarice.

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CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

Sometimes such verbs will take a subordinate clause introduced by quod, ``that.'

Such clauses take the indicative:

PoeÅtam piget quod reÅx urbem deÅleÅvit.

That the king destroyed the city disgusts

the poet.

VERBS AND EXPRESSIONS OF PERMISSION AND NECESSITY

A few impersonal verbs express necessity or obligation: licet, liceÅre, licuit

to be permitted

oportet, oporteÅre, oportuit

to be necessary, ®tting

decet, deceÅre, decuit

it is right

necesse est

it is necessary

Such verbs may take an accusative and in®nitive construction: Oportet poeÅtam canere.

It is ®tting that the poet sing.

NoÅn liceÅbat meÅ võÅvere.

It was not permitted for me to live.

They may take the in®nitive with the dative case:

Necesse est poeÅtae canere.

It is necessary for the poet to sing.

They may take a subordinate clause introduced by ut taking the subjunctive: NoÅn liceÅbat ut poeÅtae taceÅrent.

It was not permitted that the poets keep

silent.

VERBS OF INTEREST

There are two impersonal verbs that express `ìnterest'' or concern: interest, interesse

it concerns, interests

reÅfert, reÅferre

it concerns, interests

Such verbs put the person concerned in the genitive.

The source of concern may be a neuter singular pronoun: Hoc reÅgis reÅfert.

This thing concerns the king.

The source of concern may be an in®nitive or accusative and in®nitive: PoeÅtae reÅfert bene canere.

To sing well concerns the poet.

ReÅgis interest poeÅtam morõÅ.

That the poet die concerns the king.

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

169

The source of concern may be a subordinate clause introduced by ut taking the subjunctive:

ReÅgis interest ut poeÅta moriaÅtur.

That the poet die concerns the king.

The source of concern may be an indirect question:

ReÅgis noÅn interest utrum opera poeÅtae It does not concern the king whether the sint bona.

works of the poet are good.

If the person concerned would be expressed with a pronoun, i.e., `ìt interests him, her, etc.,' rather than use that pronoun in the genitive, these verbs use the possessive adjective in the feminine ablative singular:10

MeaÅ reÅfert ut poeÅtae serventur.

It concerns me that the poets be saved.

VestraÅ interest utrum reÅx sit deÅmeÅns.

It concerns you whether the king is

insane.

Exercises

22. Translate the following.

1. Quod reÅx bellum parat cõÅveÅs taedet.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

2. PoeÅtae noÅn reÅfert utrum reÅx libroÅs deÅleat.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3. PoeÅta dõÅxit fore ut omneÅs libroÅs deÅleÅrentur.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

4. AvaÅritiae reÅgis omneÅs piget.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. Omnium interest ut lõÅbertaÅs serveÅtur.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. Taedet reÅgõÅnam reÅgem videÅre.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

7. TuaÅ maximeÅ interest abõÅre.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

10 This feminine ablative singular is understood to agree with the pre®x reÅ-, the ablative singular of the noun reÅs.

Originally the expression was mea reÅs fertÐ``my interest bears''Ðthe reÅs combining with fert to produce reÅfert, in which the reÅ perhaps appeared to have become ablative and occasioned the change from mea to meaÅ. However, this use of the feminine ablative singular of the possessive also works for the verb interest, with no reÅ anywhere in sight.

170

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

8. Necesse erit omnibus cõÅvibus hunc librum legere.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

9. Necesse erit ut hic liber ab omnibus cõÅvibus legaÅtur.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

10. NoÅn liceÅbat noÅbõÅs ut in paÅce võÅvereÅmus.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

23. Translate the following sentences.

1. In tantaÅ laetitiaÅ cunctae cõÅvitaÅtis meÅ uÅnum tristem esse oporteÅbat?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. NoÅn tamen pigeÅbit vel inconditaÅ ac rude voÅce memoriam prioÅris servituÅtis ac testimoÅnium praesentium bonoÅrum composuisse.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. Neque meÅ mõÅlitum neque voÅs ducis paenituit.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. QuandoÅ deÅnique fuit ut quod licet noÅn liceÅret?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

5. Ad mortem teÅ, CatilõÅna, duÅcõÅ iussuÅ coÅnsulis iam prõÅdem oporteÅbat; in teÅ conferrõÅ pestem quam tuÅ in noÅs maÅchinaÅris.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

6. Quid reÅfert utrum voluerim ®erõÅ an gaudeaÅm factum?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Vocabulary

tantus, -a, -um

so great

laetitia, -ae, f.

happiness

cunctus, -a, -um

all, the whole

cõÅvitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

citizenry, state

tristis, -e

depressed, sad

vel

even

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

171

inconditus, -a, -um

unpolished, rough

rudis, -e

crude, un®nished

voÅx, voÅcis, f.

voice

memoria, -ae, f.

memory, record

prior, prius

earlier, prior

servituÅs, -tuÅtis, f.

slavery

testimoÅnium, õÅ, n.

testimony

praeseÅns, -ntis

present, at hand

compoÅnoÅ, compoÅnere, composuõÅ, compositus

compose, write

dux, ducis, m.

leader

deÅnique

®nally

mors, mortis, -ium, f.

death

CatilõÅna, -ae, m.

Catiline

duÅcoÅ, duÅcere

lead

iussuÅ (abl.)

by order of ( gen.)

coÅnsul, coÅnsulis, m.

consul

iam prõÅdem

for a long time already

conferoÅ, conferre

bring, bestow, confer

pestis, pestis, f.

pestilence, destruction

maÅchinor, maÅchinaÅri, maÅchinaÅtus sum

devise, contrive

gaudeoÅ, gaudeÅre, gaÅvõÅsus sum

be happy

The In®nitive

The in®nitive is a verbal noun, and as such it may be the subject of a sentence: Placet dormõÅre.

It is pleasing to sleep.

VõÅdisse lõÅbertaÅtem bonum est.

It is good to have seen liberty.

Note that the adjective bonum takes the neuter singular. As nouns, in®nitives are treated as neuter singular.

The in®nitive may be the object of a transitive11 verb: PoeÅta canere optat.

The poet chooses to sing.

MorõÅ praeferimus.

We prefer to die.

Some intransitive12 verbs, such as possum, take the in®nitive: HomineÅs eÅrectõÅ ambulaÅre possunt.

Men are able to walk upright.

11 A transitive verb is one that takes a direct object.

12 An intransitive verb is one that cannot take a direct object.

172

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

Such an in®nitive is felt to complete the meaning of the verb and is called a complementary in®nitive.

The in®nitive may take a nominative subject and act as the main verb of a sentence:

MiliteÅs claÅmaÅre, fugere, capõÅ.

The soldiers shouted, ¯ed, were

captured.

Because such usages of the in®nitive occur most often among writers of historical narrative, they are called historical in®nitives. Usually they appear in groups.

Gerund and Gerundive

The gerund serves as the verbal noun in the genitive, dative, and ablative cases, and in the accusative with certain prepositions. It will have the normal syntax associated with these different cases.

PoeÅtae est amor canendõÅ.

The poet has a love of singing.

Here the gerund canendõÅ is an objective genitive.

Inter®ciendoÅ reÅx cõÅveÅs terret.

The king terri®es the inhabitants by

killing.

Here the gerund inter®ciendoÅ is an ablative of means.

Although it is a verbal noun, the gerund tends not to govern a direct object. To express a direct object relationship, Latin uses the gerundive. The gerundive is a verbal adjective that, instead of governing a direct object in the accusative case, agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case:

Inter®ciendõÅs poetõÅs reÅx cõÅveÅs terret.

The king will terrify the citizens by

killing poets.

The phrase inter®ciendõÅs poeÅtõÅs is in the ablative case as an ablative of means. It expresses the means by which the king will terrify the citizens. Though ``the poets''

would normally be expressed as a direct object in any other type of verbal expression, with the gerundive such a relationship is usually expressed by noun-adjective agreement.

MõÅlitibus est timor urbis deÅlendae.

The soldiers have a fear of destroying the

city.

Again, in any other verbal expression, ``the city'' would be the direct object of the verb ``to destroy'':

MõÅliteÅs timent urbem deÅleÅre.

The soldiers are afraid to destroy the

city.

In the ®rst example, however, the phrase urbis deÅlendae functions as an objective genitive, so the noun and gerundive agree in that case.

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

173

The gerund and the gerundive in the accusative case with the preposition ad express purpose:

ReÅx mõÅliteÅs mittit ad urbem delendam. The king sends soldiers for the purpose of destroying the city.

This meaning can also be expressed with the genitive followed by the preposition causaÅ:13

ReÅx mõÅliteÅs mittit urbis deÅlendae

The king sends soldiers for the sake of

causaÅ.

destroying the city.

Supine

The supine is a verbal noun that exists only in the accusative and ablative cases (see Chapter 4, verbal noun section). The accusative is used to express purpose with a verb of motion:

ReÅx mõÅliteÅs mittit urbem deÅleÅtum.

The king sends soldiers to destroy the

city.

The ablative is used to express respect or speci®cation: mõÅraÅbile dictuÅ

(a thing) wonderful to say.

Exercises

24. Translate the following.

1. Dulce est võÅvere?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. Ad proÅvinciam õÅboÅ bellum võÅsum.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. Ad proÅvinciam õÅboÅ ad bellum videndum.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. Ad proÅvinciam õÅboÅ bellõÅ videndõÅ causaÅ.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

5. PoeÅtaÅs inter®cere erat terribile factuÅ.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

13 This is really the ablative of the noun causa, which has this independent usage. It follows a noun in the genitive case and means ``for the sake of.'

174

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

6. In urbe maneÅre poeÅta voleÅbat.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

7. MõÅliteÅs urbem deÅleÅre timent.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

8. LõÅbertaÅtis omnium deÅlendae causaÅ reÅx poeÅtaÅs inter®cere voluit.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

25. Translate the following sentences.

1. O rem noÅn modoÅ võÅsuÅ foedam sed etiam audõÅtuÅ!

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

2. NoÅn igitur mõÅlieÅns perõÅre est melius quam in suaÅ cõÅvitaÅte sine armaÅtoÅrum praesidioÅ noÅn posse võÅvere?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3. DieÅs iam meÅ deÅ®ciat sõÅ quae dõÅcõÅ in eam sententiam possunt coÅner exproÅmere.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. Pro meaÅ perpetuaÅ cupiditaÅte vetrae dõÅgnitaÅtis retinendae et augendae quaesoÅ oÅroÅque voÅs, patreÅs, conscriptõÅ, ut prõÅmoÅ, etsõÅ erit vel acerbum audõÅtuÅ vel increÅdibile aÅ CiceroÅne dictum, accipiaÅtis sine offensioÅne quod dõÅxeroÅ, neÅve id prius quam quaÅle sit explicaÅveroÅ repudieÅtis.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Vocabulary

noÅn modo

not only

foedus, -a, -um

foul

sed etiam

but also

igitur (adv.)

therefore

mõÅlieÅns (adv.)

a thousand times

pereoÅ, perõÅre

die, perish

cõÅvitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

citizenry, state

CHAPTER 9 Syntax of the Complex Sentence

175

armaÅtus, -a, -um

armed

võÅvo, võÅvere

live

praesidium, -õÅ, n.

protection

deÅ®cioÅ, deÅ®cere

be lacking, run out

sententia, -ae, f.

thought, opinion

coÅnor, coÅnaÅrõÅ, coÅnaÅtus sum

try, attempt ( inf.)

exproÅmoÅ, exproÅmere

bring out, reveal

perpetuus, -a, -um

perpetual

cupiditaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

desire

dõÅgnitaÅs, -taÅtis, f.

dignity, prestige

retineoÅ, retineÅre

retain, keep, maintain

augeoÅ, augeÅre

increase

quaesoÅ

I ask

patreÅs conscriptõÅ

senators

prõÅmoÅ (adv.)

®rst

vel . . . vel

either . . . or

acerbus, -a, -um

bitter

increÅdibilis, -e

incredible

CiceroÅ, -oÅnis, m.

Cicero

accipioÅ, accipere

accept, hear

offensioÅ, -oÅnis, f.

offense

neÅve

and not ( subj.)

quaÅlis, -e

how, of what kind

explicoÅ, explicaÅre

explain

repudioÅ, repudiaÅre

reject, repudiate

This page intentionally left blank.

Answers to Exercises

Chapter 1

Dat.

pueroÅ

puerõÅs

Acc.

puerum

pueroÅs

1. 1. Vocative

Abl.

pueroÅ

puerõÅs

2. Nominative

Voc.

puer

puerõÅ

3. Genitive

3. Nom.

amõÅcus

amõÅcõÅ

4. Accusative

Gen.

amõÅcõÅ

amõÅcoÅrum

5. Dative

Dat.

amõÅcoÅ

amõÅcõÅs

6. Ablative

Acc.

amõÅcum

amõÅcoÅs

Abl.

amõÅcoÅ

amõÅcõÅs

2.

Sing.

Pl.

Voc.

amõÅce

amõÅcõÅ

Nom.

aqua

aquae

Gen.

aquae

aquaÅrum

6. 1. regna, regna

Dat.

aquae

aquõÅs

2. gladioÅrum

Acc.

aquam

aquaÅs

3. virõÅs, virõÅs

Abl.

aquaÅ

aquõÅs

4. librõÅ

5. numeroÅs

3. 1. puellaÅs

6. gaudia, gaudia

2. meÅnsaÅrum, meÅnsõÅs

7. puerõÅ

3. poeÅtae

8. regna

4. terrõÅs

5. aquaÅrum, aquõÅs

7. 1. virõÅ

6. feÅminaÅrum, feÅminõÅs

2. gladium

7. terraÅs

3. bellum, bellum

8. pecuÅniae

4. ventus

5. amõÅcoÅ, amõÅcoÅ

4. 1. puella

6. vir

2. terram

7. numerum

3. poeÅtae, poeÅtaÅ

8. regnõÅ

4. aquae

5. meÅnsae, meÅnsaÅ

8.

Sing.

Pl.

6. terra

1. Nom.

corpus

corpora

7. õÅnsulae

Gen.

corporis

corporum

8. luÅna

Dat.

corporõÅ

corporibus

Acc.

corpus

corpora

5. 1.

Sing.

Pl.

Abl.

corpore

corporibus

Nom.

saxum

saxa

2. Nom.

meÅns

menteÅs

Gen.

saxõÅ

saxoÅrum

Gen.

mentis

mentium

Dat.

saxoÅ

saxõÅs

Dat.

mentõÅ

mentibus

Acc.

saxum

saxa

Acc.

mentem

menteÅs=mentõÅs

Abl.

saxoÅ

saxõÅs

Abl.

mente

mentibus

2. Nom.

puer

puerõÅ

3. Nom.

dolor

doloÅreÅs

Gen.

puerõÅ

pueroÅrum

Gen.

doloÅris

doloÅrum

177

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178

Answers to Exercises

Dat.

doloÅrõÅ

doloÅribus

4. third

Acc.

doloÅrem doloÅreÅs

5. fourth

Abl.

doloÅre

doloÅribus

6. second

7. second

9. 1. urbeÅs, urbõÅs (i-stem)

8. ®rst

2. reÅgibus

9. third

3. voÅcum

10. third

4. animaÅlibus, animaÅlibus

5. ¯uÅmina, ¯uÅmina

15. 1. liberty (direct object)

6. urbium

2. of the horsemen

7. nocteÅs

3. from, with, in, by rocks=to, for rocks

8. amoÅribus

4. of the poet, for the poet, the poets (subject)

5. ®elds (direct object)

10. 1. sõÅdus, sõÅdus

6. example (subject or direct object)

2. voluptaÅtõÅ, voluptaÅte

7. of the shore

3. urbs, urbem

8. of the appearance=to, for appearance

4. doloÅris

9. to, for the queens=from, with, in, by

5. montem

queens

6. mentis

10. the appearance of liberty

7. animal, animal

11. the king of the poets

8. naÅvis

12. rocks of the ®eld

9. amoÅrõÅ, amoÅre

11.

Sing.

Pl.

16. 1. curruÅs

1. Nom.

specieÅs

specieÅs

2. exemplaÅribus

Gen.

specieÅõÅ

specieÅrum

3. reÅgõÅnaÅrum, reÅgõÅnõÅs

Dat.

specieÅõÅ

specieÅbus

4. equitibus

Acc.

speciem

specieÅs

5. lõÅtora

Abl.

specieÅ

specieÅbus

2. Nom.

manus

manuÅs

17. 1. poeÅtae, poeÅtaÅ

Gen.

manuÅs

manuum

2. agrõÅ

Dat.

manuõÅ

manibus

3. saxum, saxum

Acc.

manum

manuÅs

4. lõÅbertaÅtis

Abl.

manuÅ

manibus

5. reÅgõÅnam

12. 1. reÅs, reÅs

18. 1. puella

puellae

2. dieÅrum

puellae

puellaÅrum

3. fruÅctuum

puellae

puellõÅs

4. fruÅctibus

puellam

puellaÅs

5. genus 2x, genibus 2x

puellaÅ

puellõÅs

2. dolor

doloÅreÅs

13. 1. genuÅ

doloÅris

doloÅrum

2. uÅsuÅs

doloÅrõÅ

doloÅribus

3. reõÅ

doloÅrem

doloÅreÅs

4. dieÅõÅ, dieÅ

doloÅre

doloÅribus

5. reÅs, rem

3. bellum

bella

bellõÅ

belloÅrum

14. 1. ®rst

belloÅ

bellõÅs

2. ®fth

bellum

bella

3. third

belloÅ

bellõÅs

Answers to Exercises

179

4. spõÅritus

spõÅrituÅs

5. noÅbileÅs, noÅbileÅs, noÅbilõÅs

spõÅrituÅs

spõÅrituum

6. noÅbilia 2x

spõÅrituõÅ

spõÅritibus

7. noÅbilis

spõÅritum

spõÅrituÅs

8. noÅbilis, noÅbilõÅ

spõÅrituÅ

spõÅritibus

9. noÅbilem

5. reÅs

reÅs

10. noÅbileÅs, noÅbilõÅs

reõÅ

reÅrum

reõÅ

reÅbus

4. 1. puella deÅmeÅns

puellae deÅmenteÅs

rem

reÅs

puellae deÅmentis

puellaÅrum deÅmentium

reÅ

reÅbus

puellae deÅmentõÅ

puellõÅs deÅmentibus

6. urbs

urbeÅs

puellam deÅmentem puellaÅs deÅmenteÅs,

urbis

urbium

deÅmentõÅs

urbõÅ

urbibus

puellaÅ deÅmentõÅ

puellõÅs deÅmentibus

urbem

urbeÅs, urbõÅs

2. reÅs facilis

reÅs facileÅs

urbe

urbibus

reõÅ facilis

reÅrum facilium

reõÅ facilõÅ

reÅbus facilibus

Chapter 2

rem facilem

reÅs facileÅs, facilõÅs

reÅ facilõÅ

reÅbus facilibus

1. 1. magnus

5. 1. malae, grandis or malae, grandõÅ

2. magnae

or malae, grandeÅs

3. magnõÅs, magnõÅs

2. malõÅ, grandis or malõÅ, grandeÅs

4. magnoÅrum

3. mala, grandia 2x

5. magnoÅ

4. malõÅs, grandibus 2x

6. magnõÅ, magnõÅ, magnoÅs

5. malaÅrum, grandium

7. magna, magnae, magnaÅs

6. malõÅ, grandeÅs or

8. magnoÅrum

maloÅs, grandeÅs=grandõÅs

9. magna

7. malus, grandis

10. magnaÅrum

8. malae, grandis or malae, grandeÅs

or malae, grandeÅs=grandõÅs

2. 1. reÅx bonus

reÅgeÅs bonõÅ

9. malum, grande 2x

reÅgis bonõÅ

reÅgum bonoÅrum

10. malaÅrum, grandium

reÅgõÅ bonoÅ

reÅgibus bonõÅs

11. malae, grandis

reÅgem bonum

reÅgeÅs bonoÅs

12. maloÅ, grandõÅ

reÅge bonoÅ

reÅgibus bonõÅs

13. maloÅrum, grandium

voc. sing. reÅx bone

14. maloÅs, grandeÅs=grandõÅs

2. urbs pulchra

urbeÅs pulchrae

15. malum, grande 2x

urbis pulchrae

urbium pulchraÅrum

urbõÅ pulchrae

urbibus pulchrõÅs

6. 1. toÅtõÅus, toÅtõÅ

urbem pulchram

urbeÅs=urbõÅs pulchraÅs

2. toÅtaÅ

urbe pulchraÅ

urbibus pulchrõÅs

3. toÅtus

3. bellum duÅrum

bella duÅra

4. toÅtõÅus

bellõÅ duÅrõÅ

belloÅrum duÅroÅrum

5. toÅtõÅus, toÅtõÅ

belloÅ duÅroÅ

bellõÅs duÅrõÅs

6. toÅtõÅus, toÅtõÅ

bellum duÅrum

bella duÅra

7. toÅtoÅ

belloÅ duÅroÅ

bellõÅs duÅrõÅs

7. 1. poeÅta grandior

poeÅtae grandioÅreÅs

3. 1. noÅbilõÅ

poeÅtae grandioÅris

poeÅtaÅrum grandioÅrum

2. noÅbilibus

poeÅtae grandioÅrõÅ

poeÅtis grandioÅribus

3. noÅbile 2x

poeÅtam grandioÅrem poeÅtaÅs grandioÅreÅs=-õÅs

4. noÅbilium

poeÅtaÅ grandioÅrõÅ(-e) poeÅtõÅs grandioÅribus

180

Answers to Exercises

8. 1. reÅs facillima

reÅs facillimae

3. the same wind

reõÅ facillimae

reÅrum facillimaÅrum

4. these girls

reõÅ facillimae

reÅbus facillimõÅs

5. those rocks

rem facillimam

reÅs facillimaÅs

6. that man lives

reÅ facillimaÅ

reÅbus facillimõÅs

7. she herself comes

2. reÅgõÅna miserrima

reÅgõÅnae miserrimae

8. that woman herself comes

reÅgõÅnae miserrimae

reÅgõÅnaÅrum

9. I saw the brother of this man

miserrimaÅrum

10. That man will live, this one will die.

reÅginae miserrimae

reÅgõÅnõÅs miserrimõÅs

reÅgõÅnam miserrimam

reÅginaÅs miserrimaÅs

5. 1. cui

reÅginaÅ miserrimaÅ

reÅgõÅnae miserrimõÅs

2. cuius

3. quõÅ, quoÅs

9. 1. sharp breath

4. cuius, quõÅ

2. most humble voices

5. cuius, quõÅ

3. a most hard king

6. quaÅrum

4. the greatest luxury

7. quibus 2x

5. the least faith

8. quoÅs

6. a better mind

9. quoÅrum

7. the best wind

10. quibus 2x

8. the greater son

9. a more insane joy

6. 1. aliquõÅ

10. most noble liberty

2. quoÅsque

11. of the most beautiful ships

3. quaedam

12. of the worst animal

4. alicuius

5. quaeque

Chapter 3

7. 1. some money

1. 1. ego

2. each queen

2. noÅs

3. a certain war

3. voÅs

4. tuÅ

Chapter 4

2. 1. noÅs

1. 1. duÅcoÅ

2. seÅ

duÅcis

3. voÅs

duÅcit

4. seÅ

duÅcimus

duÅcitis

3. 1. haec

duÅcunt

2. illum

2. venioÅ

3. eaÅrum

venõÅs

4. ipsa, ipsae, ipsaÅs

venit

5. eoÅrundem

venõÅmus

6. hõÅs

venõÅtis

7. huius

veniunt

8. illõÅs, illõÅs

3. iacioÅ

9. eaÅsdem

iacis

10. ipsa

iacit

iacimus

4. 1. that queen

iacitis

2. you (pl.) yourselves

iaciunt

Answers to Exercises

181

2. 1. impleor

venieÅbaÅtis

impleÅris=impleÅre

venieÅbant

impleÅtur

impleÅmur

impleÅminõÅ

5. 1. duÅceÅbar

implentur

duÅceÅbaÅris=duÅceÅbaÅre

2. pellor

duÅceÅbaÅtur

pelleris=pellere

duÅceÅbaÅmur

pellitur

duÅceÅbaÅminõÅ

pellimur

duÅceÅbantur

pelliminõÅ

2. habeÅbar

pelluntur

habeÅbaÅris=habeÅbaÅre

3. paror

habeÅbaÅtur

paraÅris=paraÅre

habeÅbaÅmur

paraÅtur

habeÅbaÅminõÅ

paraÅmur

habebantur

paraÅminõÅ

parantur

6. 1. 1st person plural passive:

we were being pushed

3. 1. 1st person plural active: we ®ll

2. 1st person plural active: we were holding

2. 3rd person singular passive:

3. 1st person singular active: I was leading

he, she, it is led

4. 2nd person plural passive:

3. 3rd person plural active: they hurl

you (pl.) were being pushed

4. 3rd person plural passive:

5. 3rd person plural passive:

they are being prepared

they were being ®lled

5. 2nd person singular active: you push

6. 3rd person plural active: they were coming

6. 2nd person singular passive:

7. 3rd person singular passive:

you are being pushed

he, she, it was being held

7. 2nd person plural passive:

8. 3rd person singular active:

you (pl.) are being hurled

he, she, it was ®lling

8. 2nd person plural active: you (pl.) prepare

9. 3rd person plural active: they lead

7. 1. paraÅboÅ

10. 1st person plural passive: we are ®lled

paraÅbis

paraÅbit

4. 1. impleÅbam

paraÅbimus

impleÅbaÅs

paraÅbitis

impleÅbat

paraÅbunt

impleÅbaÅmus

2. duÅcam

impleÅbaÅtis

duÅceÅs

impleÅbant

duÅcet

2. pelleÅbam

duÅceÅmus

pelleÅbaÅs

duÅceÅtis

pelleÅbat

duÅcent

pelleÅbaÅmus

pelleÅbaÅtis

8. 1. impleÅbor

pelleÅbant

impleÅberis=impleÅbere

3. venieÅbam

impleÅbitur

venieÅbaÅs

impleÅbimur

venieÅbat

impleÅbiminõÅ

venieÅbaÅmus

impleÅbuntur

182

Answers to Exercises

2. audiar

12. facerem

audieÅris=audieÅre

facereÅs

audieÅtur

faceret

audieÅmur

facereÅmus

audieÅminõÅ

facereÅtis

audientur

facerent

9. 1. 2nd person singular active:

13. duÅcerer

you will prepare

duÅcereÅris=duÅcereÅre

2. 1st person singular active: I will ®ll

duÅcereÅtur

3. 1st person plural passive: we will be led

duÅcereÅmur

4. 3rd person singular passive:

duÅcereÅminõÅ

he, she, it will be heard

duÅcerentur

5. 1st person singular active: I will push

6. 3rd person plural passive:

14. 1. 1st person plural present indicative active

they will be prepared

2. 2nd person plural present subjunctive

7. 2nd person plural active:

active

you (pl.) will have

3. 3rd person singular imperfect indicative

8. 1st person plural active: we will push

active

9. 2nd person singular passive:

4. 3rd person singular present subjunctive

you will be ®lled

passive

10. 2nd person plural passive:

5. 3rd person plural future indicative active

you (pl.) will be led

6. 2nd person singular imperfect subjunctive

active

10. 1. parem

7. 2nd person singular future indicative active

pareÅs

8. 2nd person plural present subjunctive

paret

active

pareÅmus

9. 2nd person plural present indicative active

pareÅtis

10. 1st person singular present subjunctive or

parent

future indicative active

2. faciam

11. 2nd person singular future indicative

faciaÅs

passive

faciat

12. 2nd person singular imperfect subjunctive

faciaÅmus

active

faciaÅtis

13. 2nd person singular future indicative

faciant

passive

14. 2nd person singular present indicative

passive or present active in®nitive

11. 1. habear

or present imperative passive,

habeaÅris=habeaÅre

singular

habeaÅtur

15. 2nd person singular present subjunctive

habeaÅmur

passive

habeaÅminõÅ

16. present imperative active plural

habeantur

17. present imperative active, singular

2. duÅcar

18. 1st person singular future indicative

duÅcaÅris=duÅcaÅre

passive

duÅcaÅtur

19. 1st person plural future indicative passive

duÅcaÅmur

20. 1st person plural imperfect indicative

duÅcaÅminõÅ

passive

duÅcantur

21. 1st person singular future indicative active

Answers to Exercises

183

22. 1st person plural present subjunctive active

17. 1. iubeoÅ

23. 2nd person plural present indicative active

2. gereÅbaÅmus

24. 2nd person plural present subjunctive

3. capitis

passive

4. pellet

25. 2nd person singular imperfect indicative

5. deÅleÅreÅs

active

6. impleÅbis

26. 2nd person plural future indicative active

7. capis=cape

27. present imperative active, plural

8. dõÅcunt

28. future imperative active, singular

9. habeÅbaÅtis

29. 1st person plural present indicative active

10. iacereÅmus

30. 1st person plural imperfect indicative

passive

18. 1. deÅlet

31. 2nd person singular present indicative

2. caperis=capere

passive or present in®nitive active or

3. faciaÅmus

present imperative passive, singular

4. gereÅtis

32. 2nd person singular imperfect subjunctive

5. venieÅbaÅtis

passive

6. dicaÅmus=dõÅceÅmus

33. present imperative active, singular

7. pellerem

8. impleÅbunt

15. 1. he, she, it says

9. duÅceÅs

2. you will hurl

10. habeÅbiminõÅ

3. they push

4. I will make

19. 1. 1st person singular future perfect

5. they were being destroyed

indicative active

6. we say

2. 1st person plural pluperfect subjunctive

7. manage!

active

8. you will be pushed

3. 3rd person singular future perfect

9. you are led=be led!=to lead

indicative or perfect subjunctive active

10. you (pl.) were coming

4. 1st person singular perfect subjunctive

11. he, she, it walks

active

12. he, she it will be ®lled

5. 2nd person singular perfect indicative

13. they will make

active

14. you (pl.) were being ®lled

6. 3rd person plural perfect indicative active

15. you (pl.) are being captured=be captured!

7. 3rd person plural pluperfect indicative

16. hear!

active

17. let him command=or command

8. 3rd person plural future perfect indicative

18. you have

or perfect subjunctive active

19. it will be waged

9. 2nd person plural perfect indicative active

20. we walk

10. 3rd person singular pluperfect subjunctive

active

16. 1. dõÅcitur

20. 1. you (pl.) had ®lled

2. duÅcaÅmur

2. I will have made

3. gereÅminõÅ

3. you came=you have come

4. duÅciminõÅ

4. I loved=I have loved

5. pelleÅbar

5. you (pl.) will have hurled

6. iubeÅreÅtur

6. you (pl.) had hurled

7. deÅleÅberis=deÅleÅbere

7. you (pl.) hurled=you (pl.) have hurled

8. capere

8. they pushed=they have pushed

9. iacimur

9. I said=I have said

10. audiar

10. we said=we have said

184

Answers to Exercises

21. 1. 3rd person singular perfect indicative

9. deÅleÅverint

passive

10. deÅleÅvisset

2. 3rd person singular pluperfect indicative

passive

3. 3rd person plural perfect indicative passive

25. 1. 3rd person plural perfect indicative active

4. 1st person singular perfect indicative

they loved=they have loved

passive

2. 3rd person plural future perfect indicative

5. 1st person plural perfect indicative passive

passive

6. 2nd person singular pluperfect subjective

they will have been led

passive

3. 3rd person plural future perfect indicative

7. 3rd person plural future perfect indicative

active1

passive

he will have walked

8. 3rd person plural perfect subjective passive

4. 2nd person singular perfect indicative

9. 3rd person singular pluperfect subjective

active

passive

you commanded=you have commanded

10. 3rd person plural pluperfect indicative

5. 3rd person singular perfect indicative

passive

passive

he was ordered=he has been ordered

22. 1. it was ®lled=it has been ®lled

6. 3rd person singular pluperfect indicative

2. she had been ®lled

passive

3. we were commanded=we have been

it had been destroyed

commanded

7. 1st person plural pluperfect indicative

4. they will have been destroyed

active

5. they had been pushed

we had destroyed

6. it will have been hurled

8. 2nd person plural perfect indicative active

7. they had been captured

you (person plural) ®lled=you (person

8. she has been captured

plural) have ®lled

9. they will have been loved

9. 2nd person plural pluperfect indicative

10. I had been loved

active

you (person plural) had pushed

10. 2nd person plural future perfect indicative

23. 1. captus, -a, -um eris=captus, -a, -um sõÅs

active

2. captus, -a, -um sim

you (person plural) will have captured

3. deÅleÅtõÅ, -ae, -a estis

11. 2nd person singular imp. indicative active

4. iactõÅ, -ae, -õÅ eraÅmus

you were walking

5. pulsus, -a, -um esset

12. 1st person singular future indicative

6. impleÅtus, -a, -um est

active2

7. impleÅtus, -a, -um erit=impleÅtus, -a, -um sit

I will push

8. impleÅtus, -a, -um erat

13. 2nd person plural future indicative active

9. impleÅtõÅ, -ae, -a esseÅmus

you (person plural) will ®ll

10. ductõÅ, -ae, -a sunt

14. 3rd person plural future indicative active

they will push

24. 1. duÅxisseÅtis

15. 2nd person singular future indicative

2. ceÅperat

passive

3. ceÅpimus

you will be pushed

4. ceÅperoÅ

5. duÅxerit

6. deÅleÅverit

1 This form could also be the perfect subjunctive, but this 7. deÅleÅveÅrunt

should not be translated in isolation.

8. deÅleÅverant

2 This form could also be present subjunctive. See above.

Answers to Exercises

185

16. 2nd person singular future indicative

34. 3rd person singular pluperfect indicative

passive

passive

you will be pushed

they had been hurled

17. 2nd person plural present indicative passive

you (person plural) are led

26. 1. 1st person singular perfect active

18. 2nd person plural imperative indicative

2. 2nd person plural present passive

passive

3. 2nd person plural pluperfect active

you (person plural) were being led

4. 2nd person plural pluperfect passive

19. 3rd person plural future indicative passive

5. 2nd person singular imperative passive

they will be led

6. 3rd person singular perfect passive

20. 1st person plural present indicative passive

7. 3rd person plural imperfect active

we are ®lled

8. 1st person plural present passive

21. 3rd person singular imperative indicative

9. 2nd person plural perfect active

passive

10. 3rd person singular pluperfect active

he, she, it was being ®lled

11. 3rd person singular imperative passive

22. 3rd person plural future indicative active

12. 2nd person singular present passive

they will ®ll

13. 3rd person plural perfect passive

23. 3rd person plural future indicative passive

14. 3rd person plural imperative passive

they will be ®lled

15. 3rd person singular present active

24. 1st person singular future indicative active

16. 2nd person plural present active

I will destroy

17. 1st person plural imperative passive

25. 2nd person singular imperative indicative

18. 2nd person singular pluperfect active

passive

19. 1st person singular pluperfect passive

you were being captured

20. 1st person singular perfect active

26. present imperative active person singular

capture!

27. 2nd person singular present indicative

27. 1. perfect active in®nitive

passive

to have had

you are captured

2. present passive in®nitive

present imperative person singular, passive

to be waged

be captured!

3. perfect passive in®nitive

present in®nitive active

to have been driven

to capture

4. present active in®nitive

28. 3rd person singular present indicative

to hurl

active

5. present passive in®nitive

he, she, it hurls

to be destroyed

29. 3rd person plural future indicative active

6. future active in®nitive

they will hurl

to be about to destroy

30. 3rd person singular future indicative

7. perfect active in®nitive

passive

to have destroyed

he, she, it will be hurled

31. 3rd person plural perfect indicative passive

28. 1. capturing

they were hurled=they have been hurled

2. the soldier capturing

32. 2nd prson plural future perfect indicative

3. the soldier capturing the city

active3

4. the soldier about to capture the city

you (person plural) will have hurled

5. captured

33. 3rd person singular imperfect indicative

6. the captured city

passive

7. the city captured by the soldier

he, she, it was being hurled

8. the city captured by the capturing soldier

9. the city captured by the soldier about to say

3 The form is also perfect subjunctive. Do not translate.

something

186

Answers to Exercises

29. 1. the city has to be destroyed

22. to carry

2. the cities had to be destroyed

23. going

3. the cities will have to be destroyed

24. you (person plural) are able

4. the men are about to destroy the city

25. to be able

5. the men were about to destroy the city

6. the men will be about to destroy the city

Chapter 5

30. 1. they had slipped

2. we will speak

1. 1. noÅbiliter

noÅbilius

noÅbilissimeÅ

3. you use

2. acerbeÅ

acerbius

acerbissimeÅ

4. you will use

3. misereÅ

miserius

miserrimeÅ

5. I am about to die

4. male

peius

pessimeÅ

6. you (person plural) were fearing

5. bene

melius

optimeÅ

7. you (person plural) will fear

8. you (person plural) will have slipped

2. 1. under the moon

9. you will try

2. after the war

10. it has to be gained

3. by the king

11. they speak

4. around the city

12. he, she, it uses

5. through the ®elds

6. without love

31. 1. 3rd person singular present subjective

7. out of the water

2. 2nd person plural imperative subjective

8. with avarice

3. 3rd person plural perfect subjective

9. down from the mountains

4. 1st person plural present subjective

10. against the soldiers

5. 2nd person singular present subjective

11. on account of money

6. 1st person singular pluperfect subjective

12. on behalf of the queen

7. 1st person plural present subjective

13. across the river

8. 1st person plural future indicative

14. before the day

9. 1st person plural present indicative

15. by the poet

10. 2nd person plural present indicative active

32. 1. we will be

Chapter 6

2. they do not wish

3. you (person plural) will be able

1. 1. The boy is the son of the sailor.

4. they are able

predicate nominative

5. you (person plural) wish

2. Avarice is the love of money.

6. he, she, it will go

objective genitive

7. you carry

3. The joy of the friends is great.

8. we are made

predicate nominative

9. you are carried

4. I hear the great joy of the friends.

10. you (person plural) prefer

subjective genitive

11. we do not wish

5. the sword of the daughter

12. I was going

possessive genitive

13. you were able

6. the breath of God

14. you (person plural) are

subjective genitive

15. to be unwilling

7. the pain of the blind slaves

16. to be made

subjective genitive

17. you (person plural) are carried

8. It is characteristic of sons to love their

18. you go

fathers.

19. I will wish

predicate genitive

20. they prefer

9. an animal of large horns

21. he, she, it was unwilling

genitive of description

Answers to Exercises

187

10. horns of animals

6. Waves are a source of great danger to

possessive genitive

sailors.

11. I reckon that queen (the value) of nothing.

predicate dative

genitive of inde®nite value

7. He put the army behind the mountains.

dat. with compound verb

2. 1. Therefore as in seeds is the cause of trees

and plants, so you were the cause of this

5. 1. Money will destroy friendship.

most distressing war.

direct object

2. As Helen for the Trojans, so that man was

2. I walked all night.

the cause of war for this republic, the cause

acc. of extent of time

of pestilence and destruction.

3. We do not wish to go a dif®cult road.

3. Both the name of peace is sweet and the

internal accusative

thing itself bene®cial; but between peace

4. The women advanced to Rome.

and slavery there is a great difference. Peace

acc. of place to which

is tranquil liberty, slavery the most extreme

5. I say that money destroys friendship.

of all evil things, to be repelled not only by

acc. subject of an in®nitive

war but even death.

6. He says that the men are shouting.

4. There was a very great amount of wine, a

acc. subject of an in®nitive

great quantity of the best silver: . . . Of these

7. Avarice destroyed the mind of the king.

things within a few days there was nothing.

direct object

5. It is characteristic of a commander to

8. For many years avarice was destroying the

conquer with planning no less than with the

mind of the king.

sword.

acc. of extent of time.

6. The recollection of slavery will make liberty

more pleaperson singular

6. 1. Indeed the republic certainly has most noble

7. He does not think your gifts of such great

young men prepared as defenders.

(value).

2. But who can tolerate this most foul beast or

how? What is there in Antonius beyond lust,

3. 1. They prepare those things which are of use

cruelty, arrogance, audacity?

to the town.

3. Put before your eyes the happiness of the

2. That man was in charge of the Roman

senate and the Roman people.

citadel.

4. Already I had seen that an evil war against

3. What reason did you bring to the Roman

the altars and hearths, against our life and

people?

fortunes was not being prepared, but waged

4. To some planning was lacking, to others

by a pro¯igate and desperate man.

spirit, to others opportunity; to no one the

5. But for how many days in that villa did you

will (was lacking).

most foully revel!

5. Let us prefer death to slavery.

6. O the criminal baseness of the man, o the

shamelessness, the worthlessness, the lust

4. 1. I do not have a sword.

not to be borne!

dat. of the possessor

2. The king was giving money to the soldiers.

7. 1. The animal is bigger than the boy.

dat. indirect object

abl. of comparison

3. The ship had to be destroyed by the poets.

2. The animals are led by the boy.

dat. of agent

abl. of personal agent

4. The city of great luxury had to be destroyed

3. The women came to the sea with great

by the sailors.

care.

dat. of agent

abl. of manner

5. That water is harmful to children.

4. The women came from Rome.

dat. with intransitive verb

abl. of place from which

188

Answers to Exercises

5. You drove out the poet because of avarice.

4. Gold is the most beautiful of all good

abl. of cause

things.

6. You drove out the poet with a sword.

5. I say that water is as beautiful as possible.

abl. of means

6. The wretched poet was shouting about the

7. With the poets singing, the gods heard us.

avarice of the Romans.

abl. absolute

7. The poet was shouting wretchedly about the

8. That year there were many wars in the

avarice of the Romans.

land.

abl. of time when

2. 1. All of your plans are clearer to us than light.

9. The king is much more insane than the

2. But who is able to bear this most foul beast?

queen.

3. Indeed the republic certainly has most noble

abl. of degree of difference

young men prepared as defenders.

10. I fear animals with large horns.

4. Who at any time (was) more pleasing to

abl. of description

rather famous men, who more conjoined

11. The queen ran out of the city because of

with rather foul men? What citizen ever of

fear.

better parts, what enemy more horrible to

abl. of cause

this state? Who more dirty in his pleasures,

who more patient in labors? Who more

8. 1. They are indeed of excellent mind, the best

greedy in rapacity, who more unrestrained

advice, outstanding agreement.

in bribery?

2. All these men differ among themselves in

respect to language, customs, laws.

Chapter 8

3. But Antonius is being held, pressed,

pressured now by those troops which we

1. 1. The sailor sees.

already have, soon by those which within a

2. The sailor will see the mountain.

few days the new consuls will prepare.

3. The sailor saw the mountain with his eyes.

4. For who is more chaste than this young

4. The sailor had seen the war in the mountains

man, who more modest, what more

with his eyes.

illustrious example do we have in our youth

5. With many tears the wretched sailor was

of the ancient sanctity?

seeing the extremely bad war in the

5. Already that man had brought the habit of

mountains of the kingdom.

being a slave to a free state, partly because

6. The mountain is seen.

of fear, partly because of suffering. I can

7. The mountain is seen by the sailor.

compare you with that man in respect to lust

8. The war is seen by the sailor in the

of dominating, but in respect to other things

mountains.

in no way must you be compared with him.

6. With these men being the producers and

2. 1. The king terri®es the citizens.

leaders, with the gods helping, with us

2. The king will terrify the citizens.

keeping watch and providing many things

3. The king terri®ed the citizens.

for the future, with the Roman people being

4. The king will have terri®ed the citizens.

in agreement, we will indeed be free within

5. The king had terri®ed the citizens.

a short time. Moreover the recollection of

6. The king was terrifying the citizens.

slavery will make liberty more pleaperson

singular

3. 1. We will proceed with arguments, we will

refute the charges with proofs clearer than

Chapter 7

light; fact will ®ght with fact, case with

case, reason with reason.

1. 1. Evil men love money.

2. Of these two charges I see the creator, I see

2. Much money is better than love.

the source, I see the certain head and name.

3. Much money is much better than much

3. But these kinds of excellences not only in

love.

our customs but even now in books are

Answers to Exercises

189

scarcely discovered. Even the pages which

4. Should I walk to the sea?

used to contain that ancient severity have

deliberative

fallen into disuse.

5. Should we have walked to the sea?

4. Between the earth and heaven, in the same

deliberative

air, hang, separated by discrete intervals,

6. Let us walk to the sea!

seven stars which, from their movement we

hortatory

call planets. In the middle of these moves

7. If only we had walked to the sea!

the sun, of the largest magnitude and power

optative

and not only the ruler of seasons and lands,

8. Should the soldiers not have walked to the

but also of the stars themselves and of

sea?

heaven. It is ®tting for those judging its

deliberative

works to believe that this (the sun) is the

spirit and mind of the entire world, this is

the principal rule and spirit of nature. This

8. 1. We have been born for honor and freedom;

one provides light and removes darkness,

either let us have these things or let us die

this conceals, this illuminates the remaining

with dignity.

stars, this regulates from the use of nature

2. For who would not fear a god seeing and

the successions of the seasons and the year

pondering and noticing all things and

which is always being reborn; this scatters

thinking that all things related to him,

the gloom of heaven and even paci®es the

attentive and full of concern.

clouds of the human mind; this one also

3. O the stupidity! Should I say stupidity or

lends his light to the other stars, extra bright,

remarkable shamelessness?

outstanding, looking upon all things, also

4. Let some sport be given to the age, let youth

hearing all things: . . .

be more free; let not all things be denied to

5. 1. Do not shout!

pleasures; let that true and upright reason

2. Do not write a book!

not always overcome; let desire and pleasure

3. Do not push the son!

sometimes conquer reason.

4. Do not be pushed!

5. If only I could discover true things as easily

5. Do not destroy the city, oh soldiers!

as refute false things!

6. Do not destroy the city, oh soldiers!

6. If only you had never entered into an

7. Destroy the city, oh soldiers!

alliance with Caesar or had never pulled it

8. Destroy the city, oh soldier!

apart!

7. For why should I have placed myself as an

6. 1. Hear, hear, senators, and learn the wounds

obstacle to your audacity?

of the republic.

2. Save therefore, judges, a citizen of good

skills, of good parts, of good men.

9. 1. the poet singing

3. Do not think that I today, when I respond to

2. liberty destroyed

that man as just as he provoked me, have

3. liberty destroyed by avarice

forgotten myself.

4. liberty destroyed by the avarice of the

4. For which reason depart and remove this

soldiers

fear for me: if it is true, so that I may not be

5. the poet about to shout

oppressed, but if false so that I may ®nally

6. the poet on the mountain about to shout

cease to fear.

7. the poet on the mountain about to shout

about liberty

7. 1. If only our sailors had conquered!

8. the poet on the mountain about to shout

optative

about liberty destroyed by the avarice of

2. If only the sailors would conquer!

the soldiers

optative

9. The poet on the mountain who is about to

3. The sailors could conquer.

shout about liberty which was destroyed by

potential

the avarice of the soldiers is dying.

190

Answers to Exercises

10. The poet on the mountain who was about

8. They were waging war until the king was

to shout about liberty which had been

killed.

destroyed by the avarice of the soldiers

9. They were waging war until the king

died.

should return.

11. The boy walking to the sea fears the

10. Since the king had been killed, the queen

captured slaves.

was shouting.

12. The boy walking to the sea fears the slaves

11. Although the king had been killed,

who were captured by the sailors.

nevertheless the queen was happy.

13. The boy walking to the sea sees the slaves

12. When the moon departed, the light of day

killing the animals.

came.

14. The boy walking to the sea saw the animals

which had been killed by the slaves.

2. 1. Then ®nally you will be killed, when no one

so base, so desperate, so similar to you will

10. 1. The queen whom the king fears is loved by

be able to be found.

the poet.

2. Nor for this reason are our speeches less

acc. direct obj.

effective because they arrive with pleasure

2. The king by whom the queen is feared hates

to the ears of the judges.

the poet.

3. For indeed what good man would not have

abl. personal agent

been a creator of your death since the health

3. The king whom the queen hates fears

and life of every excellent man rested upon

animals with large horns.

it, the liberty and dignity of the Roman

acc. direct obj.

people (rested upon it).

4. The animals which had been led to city by

4. But before I approach those things which

the king who hates poets were feared

have been disputed by you, I will say what I

much.

think about you yourself.

nom. subject

5. Since you speak about ancient things, make

5. The animals who had large horns were

use of the ancient liberty from which we

killed by the soldiers of the king.

have degenerated even more than (we have

dat. of the possessor

degenerated) from eloquence.

6. The bodies of the animals whose horns had

6. Pompeius himself, incited by the enemies of

been sold were being placed in the ®re.

Caesar and because he wished no one to be

possessive gen.

made equal with himself in respect to

prestige, had completely turned himself

Chapter 9

away from his friendship.

7. But nevertheless men, although they are in

1. 1. Because the slaves were extremely

violently disturbed circumstances, if at least

wretched, the king was giving gold to the

they are men, sometimes are relaxed in their

people.

minds.

2. The king was giving gold to the people

(supposedly) because the slaves were

3. 1. The people fear that the avarice of the king

extremely wretched.

will destroy the kingdom.

3. Although the slaves are most wretched, the

2. The poet was afraid that avarice had

king will not give gold to the people.

destroyed the kingdom.

4. Since the king had given gold to the

3. The king deters the poets from writing

people, the slaves were not shouting.

books.

5. When the king gave gold to the people,

4. The king will not deter the soldiers from

they shouted.

killing the poets.

6. Because the queen had been captured, the

5. The Romans did not doubt that empire was

king was preparing war.

the greatest of goods.

7. The king was preparing war before the

6. The poet was begging the king that the

queen could be killed.

books not be destroyed.

Answers to Exercises

191

7. The king will not destroy the books

2. If the insane king had not destroyed the

provided that the soldiers kill the poets.

kingdom, the poets would not have ¯ed to

8. The king wishes to kill the poets in order

Rome. (Past contrary-to-fact)

that the people may be free from books.

3. If the son should not preserve his faith, the

9. The poets were being killed by the king in

father would be most wretched. (Future

such a way that the people feared much.

less vivid)

10. So great was the avarice of the king that

4. If the son were not preserving his faith, the

the people now is a people of slaves.

father would be most wretched. (Present

contrary-to-fact)

4. 1. Was he so insane that he entrusted all his

5. If the son had not preserved his faith at that

fortunes to the slaves of another person?

time, the father would now be most

2. Let desire and pleasure sometimes conquer

wretched. (Mixed contrary-to-fact)

reason, provided that the following rule and

6. If many poets walk in the city, they give

control be maintained.

peace to both the queen and the people.

3. But now, in order that I may free myself

(Simple)

from all ill will, I will put in the middle (i.e.,

7. If the king should kill the poets, the people

explain) the thoughts of the philosophers

would fear. (Future less vivid)

concerning the nature of the gods.

8. If the insane king kills the poets, the

4. But since, senators, something must be said

people will fear much. (Future more vivid

by me on behalf of myself and many things

emphatic)

(must be said) against Antonius, I ask one

9. If the great poet had been killed by the

thing of you, that you listen to me in a

insane king, the queen would have

friendly manner when speaking about

destroyed the peace. (Past contrary-to-fact)

myself, and another thing I myself shall

10. If the great poet is killed by the king, the

bring about, that, when I speak against that

queen will destroy the peace. (Future more

man, you listen attentively.

vivid)

5. You with that throat, with those ¯anks, with

that gladiator's strength of your entire body,

had drunk so much (of) wine at the wedding

of Hippia that it was necessary for you on

6. 1. We would also have lost our memory itself

the following day to vomit in view of the

with our voice if it were so much in our

Roman people.

power to forget as (it is in our power) to

6. Why were you either so friendly that you

keep silent.

lent gold or so hostile that you feared

2. Many jokes are customarily in letters which,

poison?

if they should be exposed, would seem

7. Or were they afraid that so many men would

foolish.

be unable to overcome one man, strong men

3. If your parents feared you and you were not

(would be unable to overcome) a weak man,

able to please them in any way (i.e., by any

swift men (would be unable to overcome) a

means) you would withdraw from their eyes

terri®ed man?

(sight) to some other place.

8. Nor must it be doubted that there were poets

4. But if some state were found in which no

before Homer.

one sinned, a lawyer would be completely

9. For which reason depart and remove this

unnecessary among innocent men just as

fear for me; if it is true, in order that I may

a doctor (would be) among healthy

not be oppressed, but if false, in order that

men.

®nally I may cease to fear.

5. But what would you say in opposition really

if I should deny that I ever sent that letter to

you?

5. 1. If the insane king destroys the kingdom,

6. The day would now run out if I should try to

the poets will ¯ee to Rome. (Future more

express the things which can be said against

vivid)

this thought.

192

Answers to Exercises

7. 1. Poets came to the city in order that they

5. If he would give money to the poets

might write books.

captured by the soldiers, the king would be

2. So blind were the poets that they did not see

loved by the queen.

the danger.

3. There are people of the sort who love

10. 1. While the slaves were ¯eeing, the soldiers

money more than liberty.

destroyed the city.

4. The king because he loved money more

2. When=if the slaves ¯ee, the soldiers will

than liberty was preparing war.

destroy the city.

5. The soldiers were seeking something of the

3. If the slaves were ¯eeing, the soldiers

sort which they would love more than

would be destroying the city.

money.

4. When the city had been destroyed by the

soldiers, the commander shouted that he

8. 1. What is there of the sort which you would

was king.

not dare?

5. If the city had been destroyed by the

2. Then ®nally you will be killed, when no one

soldiers, the commander would have

so foul, so desperate, so similar to you will

shouted that he was king.

be able to be found (no one) of the sort who

6. If the city is destroyed by the soldiers, the

would not say that it was done rightly. As

commander will shout that he is king.

long as there will be anyone of the sort who

7. While the commander was shouting that he

would dare to defend you, you will live.

was king, the slaves were ¯eeing from the

3. For what is there indeed, Catiline, of the sort

city.

which now in this city would be able to

8. If the commander is king, the slaves will

please you, in which there is no one, outside

fear much.

that conspiracy of desperate men, of the sort

9. If the commander had been king, the

who would not fear you, no one who would

slaves would have feared much.

not hate you?

10. Although the commander was shouting

4. Decidius is sent with a few men in order

that he was king of the city, nevertheless

that he may look over the nature of the

the soldiers departed.

place.

5. Hear now, please, not those things of the

11. 1. And so when all of their ®elds had been

sort which he did basely and intemperately

destroyed, their villages and buildings had

against himself and his own private honor,

been burned, Caesar led the army back and

but which he did impiously and monstrously

settled it in winter camp.

against ourselves and our fortunes, that is,

2. Although a small part of the summer

against the whole republic.

remained, nevertheless Caesar hurried to set

6. For why should I have placed myself as an

forth into Britain.

obstacle to your audacity (of the sort which)

3. And just as the old time saw what was the

neither the authority of this body nor the

most extreme in liberty, so we (see) what in

opinion of the Roman people nor any laws

slavery, with even the exchange of speaking

were able to restrain?

and listening having been removed through

trials.

9. 1. The king will give money to the poet

when=if=because he sings.

12. 1. We think that the queen is wretched.

2. Although he was singing, nevertheless the

2. We think that the queen was wretched.

king did not give money to the poet.

3. We think that the queen will not speak to

3. The king would give money to the poet if he

us.

were singing.

4. He thinks that the mothers of the dead

4. The king would not have given money to

soldiers are walking toward the sea.

the poets if they had been captured by the

5. He thought that the mothers of the dead

soldiers.

soldiers had walked to the sea.

Answers to Exercises

193

6. There is a rumor that the mothers of the

5. You knew to whom the king was going to

dead soldiers will walk to the sea.

give gold.

7. There was a rumor that the mothers of the

6. He did not wish to tell me how the soldiers

dead soldiers would walk to the sea.

had destroyed the city.

8. He says that the animals are being looked

7. No one is able to tell me why the city is

at by the boys.

being destroyed by the soldiers.

9. He says that the animals were looked at by

8. Tell me by whom the king was killed.

the boys.

9. He asked why we are not loved.

10. He said that the animals were being looked

10. Who asked why we had not been loved?

at by the boys.

11. He said that the animals had been looked

at by the boys.

15. 1. I (saw) what that man (was thinking and

12. He said that the boys would look at the

watching for) and that man on the other

animals.

hand saw what I was thinking and watching

13. He said that the animals would look at the

for.

boys.

2. That man (saw) what I (was thinking and

14. No one believes that the king will kill the

watching for) and I on the other hand saw

poets.

what that man was thinking and watching

15. Who would believe that the king killed the

for.

poets?

3. For what was the reason why Caelius

wanted to give poison to that woman? But

13. 1. Is it believable then that so great a crime was nevertheless it has not been said from where

committed for no reason?

that poison came, how it was prepared.

2. Now you will understand that I am keeping

4. And so today I will accomplish that he

watch for the safety of the republic much

understand how great a favor he received

more sharply than you are for its

from me at that time.

destruction.

5. And just as the old time saw what was the

3. I was grieved, I was grieved, senators, that

most extreme in liberty, so we (see) what in

the republic which had formerly been saved

slavery, with even the exchange of speaking

by your counsels and mine would perish

and listening having been removed through

within a short time.

trials.

4. For there are and have been philosophers (of

the sort) who believed that the gods have no

16. If, judges, there should perhaps now be present concern for human matters. And if the

someone ignorant of the laws, of trials, of our

opinion of these men is true, what devotion

practice, he would undoubtedly wonder what is

can there be, what sanctity, what

the great terribleness of this case because

religion?. . . However, there are other

during holidays and public entertainments,

philosophers, and these indeed are great and

when all law court business matters have been

noble, (of the sort) who believe that the

suspended, this one trial is being conducted,

entire world is managed and ruled by the

nor would he doubt that the defendant is being

mind and reason of the gods.

accused of so great a crime that, if this thing

5. The clever man does not understand that he

were neglected, the state could not stand.

against whom he speaks is being praised by

1. Present subjunctive in the protasis of a

him, that those among whom he speaks are

future-less-vivid conditional sentence.

being criticized.

2. Present subjunctive in the apodosis of a

future-less-vivid conditional sentence.

14. 1. We wonder why you are shouting.

3. Present subjunctive in indirect question in

2. We were wondering why you had shouted.

primary sequence showing time

3. I do not know why they shouted.

simultaneous to the main verb.

4. Do you know to whom the king will give

4. Ablative of time when.

gold?

5. Ablative absolute.

194

Answers to Exercises

6. Present subjunctive in a clause of doubting

2. Perfect subjunctive in a relative clause in

in primary sequence showing time

indirect statement in primary sequence

simultaneous to the main verb.

showing time prior to the main verb.

7. Present subjunctive in a result clause in

3. Ablative of description.

primary sequence.

4. Present subjunctive in a relative clause in

indirect statement in primary sequence

17. 1. The king kills poets because they shout

showing time prior to the main verb

about liberty.

2. The queen says that the king kills poets

19. 1. He says that if war is waged in the province, because they shout about liberty.

the farmers ¯ee. (Simple)

3. The queen said that the king was killing the

2. He says that if war is waged in the province,

poets because they were shouting about

the farmers will ¯ee. (Future)

liberty.

3. He was saying that if war were waged in the

4. The queen says that the king killed the poets

province, the farmers would ¯ee. (Future)

because they shouted about liberty.

4. He says that if war were being waged in the

5. The queen says the king will kill the poets

province, the farmers would be ¯eeing.

because they shouted about liberty.

(Present contrary-to-fact)

6. The queen was saying that the king had

5. He says that if war had been waged in the

killed the poets because they were shouting

province, the farmers would have ¯ed. (Past

about liberty.

contrary-to-fact)

7. The queen was saying that the king would

6. He was saying that if war had been waged in

kill the poets because they had shouted

the province, the farmers would have ¯ed.

about liberty.

(Past contrary-to-fact)

8. The queen was saying that the king who

20. And indeed, if you wish to pay attention

feared the people had killed the poets

diligently, (and) to judge truly concerning this

because they had shouted about liberty.

entire case, you will so decide, judges, that

9. The queen was saying that the king who

neither would anyone for whom whether he

feared the people would kill the poets

wished (to do so or not) were permitted, have

because they were shouting about liberty.

descended to this accusation, nor, when he had

descended, would he have any hope (anything

18. When the same man hears that there is a law

of hope), if he were not relying upon the

which, in the case of rebellious and criminal

intolerable lust and excessively bitter hatred of

citizens who have occupied the senate armed,

someone else.

who have in¯icted violence upon magistrates,

The indirect question utrum vellet is the

who have attacked the republic, orders a trial to

subject of liceret.

be held daily, he would not disapprove of the

There is a subordinated conditional sentence

law, he would ask the crime which is being

that probably would have run as follows:

handled in the trial; when he hears that no

crime, no audacity, no violence is being called

Ad hanc accusatioÅnem noÅn descendisset is cui

into trial but that a young man of outstanding

liceÅbat (dicere) utrum vellet (descendere an

talent, diligence, favor is being accused by the

noÅn), nec, cum descendisset, quicquam spei

son of that man whom he himself is calling and

habuisset=habeÅret, nisi alicuius libõÅdine et

has called, moreover that he is being attacked

odioÅ niteÅreÅtur.Ð

by the resources of a prostitute, he would not

21. 1. The queen thinks that the poets will be

®nd fault with the loyalty of that man, he would

killed by the king.

think that the lust of a woman must be

2. The queen thought that the poets would be

suppressed, he would judge that you are very

killed by the king.

hard working, for whom it is not permitted to

3. The queen believes that on that day the

be at leisure not even during the leisure that is

citizens will fear the king.

common to all.

4. The queen believed that on that day the

1. Subject accusative of an indirect statement.

citizens would fear the king.

Answers to Exercises

195

5. There was a rumor that the king would not

which you devise against us to be brought

be able to kill the poets whom the queen had

against you.

hidden.

6. What does it matter whether I wanted it to

be done or that I am happy that it was done?

22. 1. That the king prepares war wearies the

citizens.

2. It does not concern the poet whether the

24. 1. Is it sweet to live?

king destroys the books.

2. I will go to the province in order to see the

3. The poet said that all books would be

war.

destroyed.

3. I will go to the province in order to see the

4. The avarice of the king disgusts all.

war.

5. It concerns all that liberty be preserved.

4. I will go to the province for the sake of

6. It wearies the queen to see the king.

seeing the war.

7. It most greatly interests you to go away.

5. To kill the poets was a terrible thing to do.

8. It will be necessary for all the citizens to

6. The poet wished to remain in the city.

read this book.

7. The soldiers are afraid to destroy the city.

9. It will be necessary that this book be read

8. For the sake of destroying the liberty of all,

by all the citizens.

the king wished to kill the poets.

10. It was not permitted for us that we live in

peace.

25. 1. O an affair not only foul to see but even to hear!

23. 1. In such great happiness of the whole state

2. Is it not therefore better to die a thousand

was it necessary for me alone to be

times than to be unable to live in one's own

depressed?

state without the protection of armed men?

2. Nevertheless it will not disgust (one) even

3. The day would now run out if I should try to

with a rough and un®nished voice to have

express the things which can be said against

composed a record of prior slavery and a

this thought.

testimony of the present goods.

4. On behalf of my perpetual desire of

3. Neither did the soldiers embarrass me nor

maintaining and increasing your dignity, I

did you (embarrass) the leader.

ask and beg you, senators, that ®rst,

4. When ®nally was it that what is permitted

although it will be bitter to hear or

was not permitted?

incredible to have been said by CiceroÅ, you

5. For a long time already it was ®tting for you

hear what I will say without offense, and

to be led to death by order of the consul,

that you not reject it before I have explained

Catiline; (it was ®tting) for the destruction

how it is.

This page intentionally left blank.

INDEX

ablative case, 3±4, 60, 91±97

participle

absolute, 94, 145±148

future, 62, 64, 118

of cause (from), 92

perfect, 61, 64±66

of comparison (from), 93

present, 61, 62, 64±66

degree of difference (by), 93

perfect indicative, 52

of description (with), 93

pluperfect indicative, 52

of manner (with), 93

present indicative, 39

of means/instrument (by), 92

verbs, 35, 39

of personal agent (by), 92

adjectives, 17±26

of place from which (from), 91±92

as adverbs, 73±74, 88, 100

of place where (in), 92

comparative degree of, 24±26, 100±101

with prepositions, 76±77, 94

declension of, 17±23

of respect, 94

®rst-second, 17±19, 28, 73, 74

of separation (from), 93

third, 19±23, 61, 73

of time when/within which (in), 92

de®nition of, 17

absolute ablative, 94, 145±148

demonstrative, 29±31, 99

accentuation, xiv±xv

®rst-second-declension, 17±19, 23, 28, 73, 74

accusative case, 3, 88±91

gender of, 17±21, 25

adverbial, 88

and genitive singular, 23

cognate, 88

inde®nite, 32±33

direct object, 88

interrogative, 99

of duration of time, 88

irregular, 23

of exclamation, 89

one-termination, 21

of extent of space, 88

participles as, 117, 144

internal, 88

positive, 24

of place to which, 88±89

possessive, 28±29

with prepositions, 74±77, 89

predicate, 99

subjects of in®nitives, 88

pronouns as, 29

supine in, 60

substantive, 100

active periphrastic, 63

superlative degree of, 25±26, 100±101

active voice, 35, 39

syntax of, 99±103

and deponent verbs, 63±64

third-declension, 19±23, 61, 73

future, 60, 62, 64, 118

one-termination, 21

future imperative, 49

three-termination, 19±20

future indicative, 43±44

two-termination, 20±21

future perfect indicative, 53

three-termination, 19±20

imperfect indicative, 41±42

two-termination, 20±21

imperfect subjunctive, 47

verbal

in®nitive

gerundive as, 172

future active, 60

participles as, 61, 117

perfect, 59±60

adverbial accusative, 88

present, 59, 64

adverbs, 73±74, 77

present active, 59

accusative of adjectives as, 88

197

Copyright 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click Here for Terms of Use.

198

INDEX

adverbs (continued)

of result, 140

adjectives as, 73±74, 88, 100

simple sentences, 119±120

comparative of, 74

with subjunctive, 140±144

de®nition of, 73

result, 129

formation of, 73±74

subordinate, 121

participles as, 144

ablative word combinations as, 94

positive, 74

in conditional sentences, 135

superlative of, 74

in indirect statement, 158±159

agent, dative of, 86

sequence of tenses, 122

agreement

temporal, 121, 123±124

of adjectives with nouns, 17, 99, 117

cognate accusative, 88

of relative pronoun and antecedent, 119, 120

commands

alphabet, xiii±xiv

imperative mood for, 36

consonants, xiii

indirect, 129

diphthongs, xiv

negative simple sentences,

vowels, xiv

110±112

antecedents, 31, 119, 120

subjunctive mood, 114

apodosis, 135, 162, 163

comparative degree

aspect (of verb tenses), 36±37

adjectives, 24±25, 100±101

adverbs, 74

comparison

cases

ablative of (from), 93

de®nition of, 2

with quam, 100±101

general explanation of, 1±2

complementary in®nitives, 172

of nouns, 1±2

completed action, 36±37

(See also speci®c cases)

complex sentences

causal clauses, 121, 124±125

ablative absolute, 145±148

cause

causal clauses, 124±125

ablative of (from), 92

clauses in, 121

relative clauses of, 141

clauses of doubting, 130

characteristic

clauses of prevention, 130

genitive of, 81

clauses of proviso, 131

relative clauses of, 140

concessive clauses, 125±128

clauses

conditional sentences, 135±140

causal, 121, 124±125

contrary-to-fact conditions, 136±137

in complex sentences, 121

future conditions, 135±136

concessive, 125±128

in indirect statement, 162±165

of doubting, 130

simple conditions, 135

fear, 130

de®nition of, 121

fore ut, 165±167

fear clauses, 130

independent

fore ut clause, 165±167

main verbs of, 113

gerund/gerundive, 172±173

simple sentences as, 105

impersonal verbs, 167±172

of prevention, 130

of emotional distress, 167±168

of proviso, 131

and expressions of permission/necessity,

purpose, 128±129

168

relative, 31

of interest, 168±169

of cause, 141

indirect commands, 129

of characteristic, 140

indirect question, 153±158

in indirect statement, 159±162

indirect statement, 148±153

of purpose, 140±141

conditional sentences in, 162±165

INDEX

199

relative clauses in, 159±162

reference, 85

subordinate clauses in, 158±159

declension, 4±5

in®nitives, 171±172

of adjectives, 17±23, 27±32

participles, 144±145

demonstrative, 29±31

purpose clauses, 128±129

®rst-second, 17±19, 25±26, 28

relative clauses

inde®nite, 32±33

of cause, 141

interrogative, 31±32

of characteristic, 140

third, 19±23

in indirect statement, 159±162

de®nition of, 4

of purpose, 140±141

of demonstrative pronouns/adjectives,

of result, 141

29±31

with subjunctive, 140±144

®rst, 4±6

result clauses, 129

fourth, 12

sequence of tenses, 122±123

of inde®nite pronouns/adjectives, 32±33

subordinate clauses in indirect statement,

of interrogative pronouns/adjectives,

158±159

31±32

supine, 173±174

of nouns

syntax of, 121±175

®fth, 13±14

temporal clauses, 123±124

®rst, 4±6

compound verbs, dative with, 85±86

fourth, 12

concern, impersonal verbs of, 168±169

second, 7±9

concessive clauses, 125±128, 144

third, 9±12

conditional sentences, 135±140, 162±165

of participles, 61

conditions

of pronouns, 27±32

contrary-to-fact, 136±137, 145, 146,

demonstrative, 29±31

163±164

inde®nite, 32±33

future, 135±136, 145

second, 7±9

simple, 135

third, 9±12

conjunction, subordinating, 121±124

defective verb, 70

conjugations, 37±38

deliberative subjunctive, 113

of possessive adjectives, 28

demonstrative adjectives, 99

of verbs, 37±39

demonstratives

de®nition of, 35

adjectives, 29±31

®rst, 38, 43, 44

pronouns, 27

fourth, 38, 44

deponent verbs, 63±66

perfect system, 52±58

deponents

present system, 38±51

imperfect subjunctive, 65±66

second, 38, 43, 44

participles, 64±66

third, 38±40, 43, 44

future active, 64±66

contrary-to-fact conditions, 136±137, 145, 146,

perfect active, 64±66

163±164

present active, 64±66

description

ablative of (with), 93

dative case

genitive of, 81

of agent, 86

difference, ablative of degree of (by), 93

with compound verbs, 85±86

diphthongs, xiv

indirect object, 84±85

direct address, 4

with intransitive verbs, 86

direct object, 88

nouns, 3, 84±87

case of, 3

of the possessor, 85

gerundive for expressing, 172

predicate, 85

doubting, clauses of, 130

200

INDEX

emotional distress, impersonal verbs of, 167±168

neuter, 17±21

exclamation, accusative of, 89

third-declension, 19±21

masculine, 17±21

of mixed-gender noun groups, 99

fear clauses, 130

neuter, 17±21

®fth declension, 13±14

of nouns, 1

®rst-conjugation verbs, 38, 43, 44

®rst-declension, 5

®rst declension

second-declension, 8

of adjectives, 17±19, 25±26, 28

third-declension, 9, 11

of nouns, 4±6

of re¯exive pronouns, 29

®rst-declension adjectives, 17±19, 25±26, 28

genitive case

®rst-declension nouns, 4±6

adjectives, 23

®rst person, 35

with certain verbs, 82

®rst-second-declension adjectives, 17±19, 73, 74

of characteristic, 81

fore ut clause, 165±167

of description, 81

fourth-conjugation verbs, 38, 44

with impersonal verbs, 82

fourth declension, 12

of inde®nite value, 81

fourth-declension nouns, 60

nouns, 2, 80±84

future active

objective, 80±81

in®nitives, 60

partitive, 80

participles, 62, 118

possessive, 80

future conditions, 135±136

predicate, 81

future imperative

subjective, 81

active, 49

gerundive, 172±173

passive, 49

formation of, 172±173

future indicative, 68, 70

uses of, 172±173

active, 43±44

gerunds, 172±173

irregular, 67±68

formation of, 60±61

passive, 44

uses of, 172±173

future in®nitive, 67±68

future participles, 62±63

active, 62, 63

passive, 62, 63

historical in®nitives, 172

future passive

hortatory subjunctive, 114

in®nitives, 60

participles, 62, 63

future perfect, 70

imperative mood, 36

future perfect indicative

formation of, 48, 110

active, 53

negative commands, 110±112

passive, 55

present

future perfect tense, 37, 70

active, 48

future-less-vivid conditions, 136

passive, 48±49

future-more-vivid conditions, 135±136, 145

simple sentences, 110±112

future tense, 37

tenses of, 37

imperatives, 69±70

imperfect indicative, 68, 70

gender, 17

active, 41±42

of adjectives, 17±21, 25

irregular, 67±68

feminine, 17±21

passive, 42

®rst-second-declension, 17±18

imperfect subjunctive, 65±66

masculine, 17±21

active, 47

INDEX

201

passive, 47

in indirect statement, 149±150

secondary sequence in, 123

as nouns, 171

wishes, 113

perfect active, 59

imperfect tense, 37

perfect passive, 59±60

impersonal verbs, 66, 167±172

present active, 59, 64

in complex sentences, 167±172

present passive, 59, 64±66

of emotional distress, 167±168

subjects of, accusative case for, 88

and expressions of permission/necessity, 168

syntax of, 171±172

of interest, 168±170

tenses of, 149±150

syntax of, 167±169

in¯ection

uses of, 167±172

de®nition of, 2

inde®nite pronouns/adjectives, 32±33

of verbs, 35

inde®nite value, genitive of, 81

intensi®er, ipse as, 30

independent clauses

interest, impersonal verbs of, 168±170

in complex sentences, 121

internal accusative, 88

main verbs of (subjunctive mood), 113

interrogatives

simple sentences as, 105

adjectives, 31±32, 99

indicative mood, 36

pronouns, 31±32

future, 68

intransitive verbs, dative with, 86

imperfect, 68, 70

ipse, 30

active, 41±42

irregular adjectives, 23

passive, 42

irregular nouns, 14±16

perfect

irregular verbs, 67±68

active, 52

i-stem declension

passive, 55, 64±66

nouns, 9±12

pluperfect

verbs, 44

active, 52

passive, 55

present, 68±70

jussive subjunctive, 114

active, 39

passive, 39±40, 63, 65±66

simple sentences, 106±110

of subordinating conjunctions, 121

law of the penult, xiv n.2

tenses of, 37

locative case (location)

indirect commands, 129

®rst declension, 5 n.2

indirect object, 3, 84±85

nouns, 4, 97

indirect questions, 153±158

second declension, 8 n.3

indirect statement, 88

in complex sentences, 148±153

conditional sentences in, 162±165

macron, xiv

relative clauses in, 159±162

manner, ablative of (with), 93

subordinate clauses in, 158±159

means/instrument, ablative of (by), 92

syntax of, 148±153

mixed contrary-to-fact conditions, 137

in®nitives, 59±60

mixed future conditions, 137

complementary, 172

modal auxiliaries, 36

in complex sentences, 171±172

moods (of verbs), 36

de®nition of, 59

motion, 88

formation of, 59±60

future active, 60

future passive, 60

necessity, verbs expressing, 168

historical, 172

negative commands, 110±112

202

INDEX

nominative case, 2, 79±80

of description, 81, 93

predicate nominative, 79±80

direct object, 88

subject, 79

of exclamation, 89

non-i-stem declension

of extent of time/space, 88

nouns, 9

fourth-declension, 60

verbs, 43

gender of, 1

nouns, 1±16

genitive case, 2, 80±84

ablative case, 3±4, 91±97

with certain verbs, 82

absolute, 94, 145

of characteristic, 81

of cause (from), 92

of description, 81

of comparison (from), 93

of inde®nite value, 81

of description (with), 93

objective, 80±81

of manner (with), 93

partitive, 80

of means/instrument (by), 92

possessive, 80

of personal agent (by), 92

predicate, 81

of place from which (from), 91±92

subjective, 81

of place where (in), 92

of inde®nite value, 81

with prepositions, 94

indirect object, 84±85

of respect, 94

with intransitive verbs, 86

of separation (from), 93

irregular, 14±16

of time when/within which (in), 92

i-stem, 9±12

accusative case, 3, 88±91

locative case, 4, 97

adverbial, 88

of manner (with), 93

direct object, 88

of means/instrument (by), 92

of exclamation, 89

nominative case, 2, 79±80

of extent of time/space, 88

predicate nominative, 79±80

of place to which, 88±89

subject, 79

with prepositions, 89

non-i-stem, 9

subjects of in®nitives, 88

number of, 1

adverbial, 88

objective, 80±81

of agent, 86

partitive, 80

cases of, 1±2

of personal agent (by), 92

of cause (from), 92

of place from which (from), 91±92

with certain verbs, 82

of place to which, 88±89

of characteristic, 81

of place where (in), 92

of comparison (from), 93

possessive, 2, 80

with compound verbs, 85±86

of the possessor, 85

dative case, 3, 84±87

predicate, 81, 85

of agent, 86

predicate nominative, 79±80

with compound verbs, 85±86

with prepositions, 89, 94

indirect object, 84±85

of respect, 94

with intransitive verbs, 86

of separation (from), 93

of the possessor, 85

stem for all, 7

predicate, 85

subject, 79

declension of, 4±14

subjective, 81

®fth, 13±14

subjects of in®nitives, 88

®rst, 4±6

syntax of, 79±97

fourth, 12

of time when/within which (in), 92

second, 7±9

verbal, 59±61

third, 9±12

gerund as, 171

INDEX

203

in®nitives as, 171

imperfect subjunctive, 47

supine, 173±174

in®nitives

vocative case, 4

future passive, 60

number, 39

perfect passive, 59±60

of nouns, 1

present passive, 59, 64±66

of subject, 35

participles

future, 62, 63

perfect, 62

objective genitive, 80±81

present, 61

obligation, verbs expressing, 168

perfect, 54±58

one-termination adjectives, 21, 61

perfect indicative, 55, 64±66

optative subjunctive, 113

perfect in®nitives, 59±60

ownership, 80

perfect subjunctive, 55

periphrastic, 63, 86

pluperfect indicative, 55

pluperfect subjunctive, 56

participles, 54, 61±63

present imperative, 48±49

in ablative absolutes, 145

present imperfect indicative, 42

as adjectives, 144

present imperfect subjunctive, 47

as adverbs, 144

present indicative, 39±40, 63, 65±66

in complex sentences, 144±145

present in®nitive, 59, 64±66

declension of, 61

present participles, 61

de®nition of, 61

present subjunctive, 46

deponents, 64±66

subjunctive

future active, 64±66

perfect, 55

perfect active, 64±66

pluperfect, 56

present active, 64±66

present, 46

formation of, 61±63

verbs, 35, 39

future

past contrary-to-fact conditions, 136±137, 145,

active, 62, 63, 118

146

passive, 62, 63

past tense, 37

perfect

penultimate syllable, xiv±xv

active, 61

perfect active in®nitives, 59

passive, 62

perfect active participle, 61

present, 68, 69, 117±118

perfect indicative, 122 n.1

active, 61, 62

active, 52

passive, 61

passive, 55, 64±66

relative time, 117±118

perfect participles, active, 61

simple sentences, 117±119

perfect passive in®nitives, 59±60

uses of, 144±145

perfect subjunctive

partitive genitive, 80

active, 53

passive periphrastic, 63, 86

negative commands, 111

passive voice, 35, 39

passive, 55

and deponent verbs, 63±64

primary sequence in, 122

future imperative, 49

perfect system (of verb conjugation)

future indicative, 44

active, 52±54

future in®nitives, 60

passive, 54±58

future participles, 62, 63

perfect tense, 37

future perfect indicative, 55

periphrastics

imperfect indicative, 42

active, 63

204

INDEX

periphrastics (continued)

present imperfect indicative

formation of, 62±63

active, 41±42

passive, 63

passive, 42

permission, verbs expressing, 168

present imperfect subjunctive

person, 35, 39

active, 47

personal agent, ablative of (by), 92

passive, 47

personal pronouns, 27±28

present indicative, 68±70

place

active, 39

where (in), 92

irregular, 67±68

to which, 88±89

passive, 39±40, 63, 65±66

from which (from), 91±92

present in®nitives

pluperfect indicative

active, 59, 64

active, 52

passive, 59, 64±66

passive, 55

present participles, 68, 69, 117±118

pluperfect subjunctive

active, 61, 62

active, 53, 59

passive, 61

passive, 56

present stem verbs, 38±39, 43

secondary sequence in, 123

present subjunctive, 69, 70

wishes, 113

active, 45±46

pluperfect tense, 37, 70

commands, 114

plural (see number)

irregular, 67±68

positive adjectives, 24

negative commands, 111

positive adverbs, 74

passive, 46

possession

primary sequence in, 122

dative case, 85

wishes, 113

genitive case, 80

present system (of verb conjugation),

possessive adjectives, 28±29

38±51

possessive genitive, 80

present tense, 37

potential subjunctive, 113

prevention, clauses of, 130

predicate, 2, 80

primary sequence of tenses, 122, 163

ablative absolutes, 146

principal parts (verbs), 37±38

adjectives, 99

pronouns, 27±32

dative, 85

as adjectives, 29

de®nition of, 2

de®nition of, 27

genitive, 81

demonstrative, 29±31

nominative, 79±80

inde®nite, 32±33

predicate dative, 85

interrogative, 31±32

predicate genitive, 81

personal, 27±28

predicate nominatives, 79±80

re¯exive, 28±29

pre®xes, 32, 85±86

relative, 31

prepositions, 74±77

pronunciation, xiii±xv

with ablative and accusative cases, 76±77

accentuation, xiv±xv

ablative with, 94±95

of consonants, xiii

with accusative case, 3, 75±77, 89

of diphthongs, xiv

accusative with, 89

of Latin words, xiv±xv

de®nition of, 74

of vowels, xiv

present contrary-to-fact conditions, 136, 145

protasis, 135, 144, 162, 163

present imperative

proviso, clauses of, 131

active, 48

purpose, relative clauses of, 140±141

passive, 48±49

purpose clauses (complex sentences),

uses of, 48

128±129

INDEX

205

quantity, adjectives denoting, 99

in®nitives, 171±172

questions

participles, 144±145

deliberative, 113

purpose clauses, 128±129

indirect, 153±158

relative clauses in indirect statement, 159±162

relative clauses with subjunctive, 140±144

result clauses, 129

re¯exive pronouns, 28±29

sequence of tenses, 122±123

relative clauses, 31

subordinate clauses in indirect statement, 158±

of cause, 141

159

of characteristic, 140

supine, 173±174

in indirect statement, 159±162

syntax of, 121±175

of purpose, 140±141

temporal clauses, 123±124

of result, 141

conditional, 135±140

simple sentences, 119±120

direct object, 88

with subjunctive, 140±144

indirect object, 84±85

relative pronouns, 31

in®nitive as subject of, 171

relative time

simple, 105±120

in ablative absolutes, 146

imperative mood, 110±112

in®nitives in indirect statement, 149±150

as independent clauses, 105

participles, 117±118

indicative mood, 106±110

subjunctives in subordinate clauses, 122±123

participles, 117±119

respect, ablative of, 94

relative clauses, 119±120

result, relative clauses of, 141

subjunctive mood, 113±117

result clauses (complex sentences), 129

subject of, 79, 171

separation, ablative of (from), 91±93

second-conjugation verbs, 38, 43, 44

sequence of tenses

second declension

in complex sentences, 122±123

of adjectives, 17±19, 25±26, 28

primary, 122

of nouns, 7±9

secondary, 122

second person, 35

simple conditions, 135

secondary sequence of tenses, 122, 163±164

simple sentences, 105±120

semi-deponent verbs, 66

imperative mood, 110±112

sentences

as independent clauses, 105

complex

indicative mood, 106±110

ablative absolute, 145±148

negative commands, 110±112

causal clauses, 124±125

participles, 117±119

clauses of doubting, 130

relative clauses, 119±120

clauses of prevention, 130

subjunctive mood, 113±117

clauses of proviso, 131

deliberative, 113

concessive clauses, 125±128

hortatory, 114

conditional sentences, 135±140

jussive, 114

conditional sentences in indirect statement,

optative, 113

162±165

potential, 113

de®nition of, 121

syntax of, 105±120

fear clauses, 130

space, extent of, 88

fore ut clause, 165±167

statement, indirect. see indirect statement

gerund/gerundive, 172±173

stem, 5

impersonal verbs, 167±172

i-stem, 9±12, 44

indirect commands, 129

non-i-stem, 9, 43

indirect question, 153±158

perfect, 52±54

indirect statement, 148±153

present, 38±39, 43±47, 61

206

INDEX

subject, 79

in indirect statement, 158±159

case of, 2

sequence of tenses, 122

in indirect statement, 149

subordinating conjunctions, 121±122

in®nitives as, 171

mood of, 121±122

nominative case, 79

temporal, 123±124

subject accusative construction, 149

substantive adjectives, 100

subjective genitive, 81

substantive result clauses, 129

subjunctive mood, 36

superlative degree

deliberative, 113

adjectives, 25±26, 100±101

hortatory, 114

adverbs, 74

imperfect, 65±66

genitive case, 80

active, 47

partitive genitive with, 80

passive, 47

supines

secondary sequence in, 123

formation of, 60

wishes, 113

uses of, 173±174

independent uses, 113±117

syncopation, 53±54

jussive, 114

syntax

optative, 113

of adjectives, 99±103

perfect

adverbial use of, 100

active, 53

comparative, 100±101

negative commands, 111

predicate, 99

passive, 55

substantive, 100

primary sequence in, 122

superlative, 100±101

pluperfect

of complex sentences, 121±175

active, 53

ablative absolute, 145±148

passive, 56

causal clauses, 124±125

secondary sequence in, 123

clauses of doubting, 130

wishes, 113

clauses of prevention, 130

potential, 113

clauses of proviso, 131

present, 69, 70

concessive clauses, 125±128

active, 45±46

conditional sentences, 135±140

commands, 114

conditional sentences in indirect statement,

negative commands, 111

162±165

passive, 46

fear clauses, 130

primary sequence in, 122

fore ut clause, 165±167

wishes, 113

gerund/gerundive, 172±173

relative clauses with, 140±144

impersonal verbs, 167±172

sequence of tenses, 121±122

indirect commands, 129

simple sentences, 113±117

indirect question, 153±158

deliberative, 113

indirect statement, 148±153

hortatory, 114

in®nitives, 171±172

jussive, 114

participles, 144±145

optative, 113

purpose clauses, 128±129

potential, 113

relative clauses in indirect statement, 159±162

subordinate uses, 121±123

relative clauses with subjunctive, 140±144

tenses of, 37

result clauses, 129

verbs, 36

sequence of tenses, 122±123

subordinate clauses, 121

subordinate clauses in indirect statement, 158±

ablative word combinations as, 94

159

in conditional sentences, 135

supine, 173±174

INDEX

207

temporal clauses, 123±124

uncompleted action, 36±37

of nouns

ablative case, 91±97

accusative case, 88±91

verbal adjectives

dative case, 84±87

gerundive as, 172

genitive case, 80±84

participles as, 61, 117

locative case, 97

verbal nouns, 59±61

nominative case, 79±80

gerund as, 60±61, 172

of simple sentences, 105±120

in®nitives, 59±60

imperative mood, 110±112

in®nitives as, 171±172

indicative mood, 106±110

supine, 60, 173±174

participles, 117±119

verbs, 35±71

relative clauses, 119±120

active voice, 35, 39

subjunctive mood, 113±117

conjugation of, 37±39

perfect system, 52±58

present system, 38±51

dative with compound, 85±86

dative with intransitive, 86

temporal clauses, 121, 123±124

defective, 70

tenses

deponent, 63±66

in conditional sentences, 162±165

®rst conjugation, 38

future, 37

fourth conjugation, 38

future perfect, 37

future indicative, 68

imperfect, 37

future perfect tense, 37

in indirect questions, 153±154

future tense, 37

of in®nitives, 149±150

genitive with, 82±84

of participles, 117±118

imperative, 69±70

perfect, 37

imperative mood of, 36

pluperfect, 37

imperfect indicative, 68

present, 37

imperfect tense, 37

sequences of, 122±123

impersonal, 66, 167±172

of verbs, 36±37

in complex sentences, 167±172

(See also speci®c tenses)

of emotional distress, 167±168

third-conjugation verbs, 38±40, 43, 44

and expressions of permission/necessity,

third declension

168

of adjectives, 19±23, 61, 73

of interest, 168±170

of nouns, 9±12

of independent clauses, 113

third person, 35

indicative mood of, 36

three-termination adjectives, 19±20

in indirect statement, 149

time

irregular, 67±68

ablative of when or within which (in), 92

mood of, 36

accusative of extent of, 88

number of, 35

relative

participles as, 117

in ablative absolutes, 146

passive voice, 35, 39

in®nitives in indirect statement, 149±150

past tense, 37

participles, 117±118

person of, 35

subjunctives in subordinate clauses, 122±123

pluperfect tense, 37

of verb tenses, 36±37

present indicative, 68, 69

(See also temporal clauses)

present participle, 68, 69

two-termination adjectives, 20±21, 24

present subjunctive, 69

208

INDEX

verbs (continued)

passive, 35, 39

present tense, 37

vocative case, 4

principal parts of, 37±38, 166

voice

second conjugation, 38

active, 35, 39

semi-deponent, 66

passive, 35, 39

subjunctive mood of, 36

vowels, xiv

tense, 36±37

third conjugation, 39, 40n.2

voice, 35

active, 35, 39

word order, 105±106

Document Outline

- Copyright

- CONTENTS

- PREFACE

- Introducion to the Latin Alphabet and Pronouncation

- Alphabet

- CONSONANTS

- VOWELS

- DIPTHONGS

- Pronunciation of Lat in Words

- CHAPTER 1: The Noun

- The Nominative Case

- The Genitive Case

- The Dative Case

- The Accusative Case

- The Ablative Case

- The Vocative Case

- Declenstion

- THE FIRST DECLENSION

- THE SECOND DECLENSTION

- THE THIRD DECLENSION

- THE FOURTH DECLENSION

- THE FIFTH DECLENSION

- A Few Irregular Nouns

- CHAPTER 2: The Adjective

- First-Sencond-Declension Adjectives

- Third-Declension Adjectives

- THIRD-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES

- TWO-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES

- ONE-TERMINATION ADJECTIVES

- Adjectives with the Genitive Singular in -ius

- Comparison of Adjectives

- THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE

- THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE

- CHAPTER 3: Pronouns and Adjectives

- Personal Pronouns

- Reflexive Pronouns

- Possessive Adjectives

- Demonstratives

- Relatives

- Interrogatives

- Indefinites

- CHAPTER 4: The Verb

- Person and Number

- Voice

- Mood

- INDICATIVE

- SUBJUNCTIVE

- IMPERATIVE

- Tense

- Conjugations

- Present System

- PRESENT INDICATIVE ACTIVE

- PRESENT INDICATIVE PASSIVE

- IMPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE

- IMPERFECT INDICATIVE PASSIVE

- FUTURE INDICATIVE ACTIVE

- FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE

- PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE

- PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE

- IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE

- IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE

- PRESENT IMPERATIVE ACTIVE

- PRESENT IMPERATIVE PASSIVE

- FUTURE IMPERATIVE ACTIVE

- Perfect System

- PERFECT ACTIVE SYSTEM

- PERFECT PASSIVE SYSTEM

- Verbal Nouns

- INFINITIVES

- SUPINE

- GERUND

- Participles

- PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE

- PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE

- FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE

- FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE

- PERIPHRASTICS

- Deponent Verbs

- PARTICIPLES

- IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE

- Semi-Deponent Verbs

- Impersonal Verbs

- Some Irregular Verbs

- PRESENT PARTICIPLE

- PRESENT INDICATIVE

- IMPERFECT INDICATIVE

- FUTURE INDICATIVE

- PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE

- PRESENT PARTICIPLE

- PRESENT INDICATIVE

- IMPERATIVE

- CHAPTER 5: Adverbs and Prepositions

- Adverbs

- Prepositions

- COMMON PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

- COMMON PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ABLATIVE CASE

- PREPOSITIONS THAT TAKE BOTH ACCUSATIVE AND ABLATIVE CASES

- CHAPTER 6: Syntax of the Noun

- Nominative Case

- SUBJECT

- PREDICATE NOMINATIVE

- Genitive Case

- POSSESSIVE GENITIVE

- PARTITIVE GENITIVE

- OBJECTIVE GENITIVE

- SUBJECTIVE GENITIVE

- GENITIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC, OR PREDICATE GENITIVE

- GENITIVE OF DESCRIPTION

- GENITIVE OF INDEFINATE VALUE

- GENITIVE WITH CERTAIN VERBS

- Dative Case

- INDIRECT OBJECT

- DATIVE OF THE POSSESSOR

- PREDICATE DATIVE

- DATIVE WITH COMPOUND VERBS

- DATIVE WITH CERTAIN INTRASITIVE VERBS

- DATIVE OF AGENT

- Accusative Case

- DIRECT OBJECT

- SUBJECT ACCUSATIVE OF AN INFINITIVE

- ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT OF TIME OR SPACE

- ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE

- ACCUSATIVE OF PLACE TO WHICH

- ACCUSATIVE WITH PREPOSITIONS

- ACCUSATIVE OF EXCLAMATION

- Ablative Case

- ABLATIVE OF PLACE FROM WHICH (FROM)

- ABLATIVE OF PLACE WHERE (IN)

- ABLATIVE OF TIME WHEN OR WITHIN WHICH (IN)

- ABLATIVE OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENT (BY)

- ABLATIVE OF CAUSE (FROM)

- ABLATIVE OF PERSONAL AGENT (BY)

- ABLATIVE OF MANNER (WITH)

- ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION (FROM)

- ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON FROM)

- ABLATIVE OF DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE (BY)

- ABLATIVE OF DESCRIPTION (WITH)

- ABLATIVE OF RESPECT

- ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

- ABLATIVE WITH PREPOSITIONS

- Locative Case

- CHAPTER 7: Syntax of the Adjective

- Predicate Adjective

- Substantive Adjective

- Adverbial Use of the Adjective

- Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

- CHAPTER 8: Syntax of the Simple Sentence

- Indicative Mood

- Imperative Mood

- NEGATIVE COMMANDS

- Subjunctive Mood: Independent Uses

- POTENTIAL

- DELIBERATIVE

- OPTATIVE

- HORTATORY OR JUSSIVE

- Participles

- Relative Clauses

- CHAPTER 9: Syntax of the Complex Sentence

- Sequence of Tenses

- RELATIVE TIME

- Temporal Clauses

- Causal Clauses

- Concessive Clauses

- Purpose Clauses

- Indirect Commands

- Result Clauses

- Fear Clauses

- Clauses of Prevention

- Clauses of Doubting

- Clauses of Proviso

- Conditional Sentences

- SIMPLE CONDITIONS

- FUTURE CONDITIONS

- CONTRARY-TO-FACT CONDITIONS

- Relative Clauses with the Subjunctive

- RELATIVE CLAUSE OF CHARACTERISTICS

- RELATIVE CLAUSE OF PURPOSE

- RELATIVE CLAUSE OF RESULT

- RELATIVE CLAUSE OF CAUSE

- Participles Revisited

- Ablative Absolute

- Indirect Statement

- Indirect Question

- Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Statement

- Relative Clauses in Indirect Statement

- Conditional Sentences in Indirect Statement

- "Fore ut" Clause

- Impersonal Verbs

- VERBS OF EMOTIONAL DISTRESS

- VERBS AND EXPRESSIONS OF PERMISSION AND NECESSITY

- VERBS OF INTEREST

- The Infinitive

- Gerund and Gerundive

- Supine

- Answers to Exercises

- INDEX

Table of Contents

Preface

Introduction to the Latin Alphabet and

Vowels

CHAPTER 1

The Nominative Case

The Dative Case

The Vocative Case

The Second Declension

The Third Declension

The Fourth Declension

The Fifth Declension

A Few Irregular Nouns

CHAPTER 2

Third-Declension Adjectives

Two-Termination Adjectives

One-Termination Adjectives

Adjectives with the Genitive Singular in -õÅus

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Comparison of Adjectives

The Superlative Degree

CHAPTER 3

Re¯exive Pronouns

Demonstratives

Relatives

Inde®nites

CHAPTER 4

Mood

Conjugations

Present System

Present Indicative Active

Imperfect Indicative Active

Imperfect Indicative Passive

Future Indicative Active

Future Indicative Passive

Present Subjunctive Active

Present Subjunctive Passive

Imperfect Subjunctive Active

Present Imperative Active

Future Imperative Active

Perfect System

Perfect Passive System

Verbal Nouns

Supine

Participles

Perfect Passive Participle

Deponent Verbs

64

Imperfect Subjunctive

Semi-Deponent Verbs

Some Irregular Verbs